diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
index f521902b..21d2be3a 100644
--- a/README.md
+++ b/README.md
@@ -6,4 +6,4 @@ https://www.qubes-os.org/doc/admin-api/ for protocol specification.
 Compatibility
 =============
 
-This package requires Python >= 3.5
+This package requires Python >= 3.11
diff --git a/qubesadmin/__init__.py b/qubesadmin/__init__.py
index 2cbcfc7e..cd87b410 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/__init__.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/__init__.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/app.py b/qubesadmin/app.py
index dae03869..4688b6fe 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/app.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/app.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf-8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
@@ -256,8 +255,8 @@ def add_pool(self, name, driver, **kwargs):
             see :py:meth:`pool_driver_parameters` for a list
         """
         # sort parameters only to ease testing, not required by API
-        payload = "name={}\n".format(name) + "".join(
-            "{}={}\n".format(key, value)
+        payload = f"name={name}\n" + "".join(
+            f"{key}={value}\n"
             for key, value in sorted(kwargs.items())
         )
         self.qubesd_call(
@@ -356,13 +355,13 @@ def add_new_vm(
             raise ValueError("only one of pool= and pools= can be used")
 
         method_prefix = "admin.vm.Create."
-        payload = "name={} label={}".format(name, label)
+        payload = f"name={name} label={label}"
         if pool:
-            payload += " pool={}".format(str(pool))
+            payload += f" pool={str(pool)}"
             method_prefix = "admin.vm.CreateInPool."
         if pools:
             payload += "".join(
-                " pool:{}={}".format(vol, str(pool))
+                f" pool:{vol}={str(pool)}"
                 for vol, pool in sorted(pools.items())
             )
             method_prefix = "admin.vm.CreateInPool."
@@ -445,13 +444,13 @@ def clone_vm(
                     pools[volume.name] = volume.pool
 
         method_prefix = "admin.vm.Create."
-        payload = "name={} label={}".format(new_name, label)
+        payload = f"name={new_name} label={label}"
         if pool:
-            payload += " pool={}".format(str(pool))
+            payload += f" pool={str(pool)}"
             method_prefix = "admin.vm.CreateInPool."
         if pools:
             payload += "".join(
-                " pool:{}={}".format(vol, str(pool))
+                f" pool:{vol}={str(pool)}"
                 for vol, pool in sorted(pools.items())
             )
             method_prefix = "admin.vm.CreateInPool."
@@ -483,7 +482,7 @@ def clone_vm(
                     pass
                 except qubesadmin.exc.QubesException as e:
                     dst_vm.log.error(
-                        "Failed to set {!s} property: {!s}".format(prop, e)
+                        f"Failed to set {prop!s} property: {e!s}"
                     )
                     if not ignore_errors:
                         raise
@@ -495,7 +494,7 @@ def clone_vm(
                     dst_vm.tags.add(tag)
                 except qubesadmin.exc.QubesException as e:
                     dst_vm.log.error(
-                        "Failed to add {!s} tag: {!s}".format(tag, e)
+                        f"Failed to add {tag!s} tag: {e!s}"
                     )
                     if not ignore_errors:
                         raise
@@ -510,7 +509,7 @@ def clone_vm(
                     dst_vm.features[feature] = value
                 except qubesadmin.exc.QubesException as e:
                     dst_vm.log.error(
-                        "Failed to set {!s} feature: {!s}".format(feature, e)
+                        f"Failed to set {feature!s} feature: {e!s}"
                     )
                     if not ignore_errors:
                         raise
@@ -521,7 +520,7 @@ def clone_vm(
                     dst_vm.set_notes(vm_notes)
             except qubesadmin.exc.QubesException as e:
                 dst_vm.log.error(
-                    'Failed to clone qube notes: {!s}'.format(e))
+                    f'Failed to clone qube notes: {e!s}')
                 if not ignore_errors:
                     raise
 
@@ -596,7 +595,7 @@ def clone_vm(
                 if ignore_volumes and dst_volume.name in ignore_volumes:
                     continue
                 src_volume = src_vm.volumes[dst_volume.name]
-                dst_vm.log.info("Cloning {} volume".format(dst_volume.name))
+                dst_vm.log.info(f"Cloning {dst_volume.name} volume")
                 dst_volume.clone(src_volume)
 
         except qubesadmin.exc.QubesException:
@@ -840,7 +839,7 @@ def qubesd_call(
             )
             if not os.path.exists(method_path):
                 raise qubesadmin.exc.QubesDaemonCommunicationError(
-                    "{} not found".format(method_path)
+                    f"{method_path} not found"
                 )
             command = [
                 "env",
@@ -859,7 +858,7 @@ def qubesd_call(
         try:
             client_socket = socket.socket(socket.AF_UNIX, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
             client_socket.connect(qubesadmin.config.QUBESD_SOCKET)
-        except (IOError, OSError) as e:
+        except OSError as e:
             raise qubesadmin.exc.QubesDaemonCommunicationError(
                 "Failed to connect to qubesd service: %s", str(e)
             )
diff --git a/qubesadmin/backup/__init__.py b/qubesadmin/backup/__init__.py
index 6bceab9c..ffd3b1aa 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/backup/__init__.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/backup/__init__.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/backup/core2.py b/qubesadmin/backup/core2.py
index 10c50c32..44821f42 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/backup/core2.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/backup/core2.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
@@ -229,7 +228,7 @@ def set_netvm_dependency(self, element: _Element) -> None:
 
         if dispvm_netvm != self.globals['default_netvm']:
             if dispvm_netvm:
-                dispvm_tpl_name = 'disp-{}'.format(dispvm_netvm)
+                dispvm_tpl_name = f'disp-{dispvm_netvm}'
             else:
                 dispvm_tpl_name = 'disp-no-netvm'
 
@@ -303,7 +302,7 @@ def import_core2_vm(self, element: _Element) -> None:
             if value and value.lower() == "none":
                 value = None
             value_is_default = element.get(
-                "uses_default_{}".format(attr))
+                f"uses_default_{attr}")
             if value_is_default and value_is_default.lower() != \
                     "true":
                 vm.properties[attr] = value
@@ -354,8 +353,7 @@ def load(self) -> bool | None:
             try:
                 # pylint: disable=no-member
                 tree = lxml.etree.parse(fh)
-            except (EnvironmentError,  # pylint: disable=broad-except
-                    xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError) as err:
+            except (OSError, xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError) as err:
                 self.log.error(err)
                 return False
 
diff --git a/qubesadmin/backup/core3.py b/qubesadmin/backup/core3.py
index 00aaf40f..77728128 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/backup/core3.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/backup/core3.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
@@ -80,7 +79,7 @@ def get_property(xml_obj: _Element, prop: str) -> str | None:
         Object can be any PropertyHolder serialized to XML - in practice
         :py:class:`BaseVM` or :py:class:`Qubes`.
         '''
-        xml_prop = xml_obj.findall('./property[@name=\'{}\']'.format(prop))
+        xml_prop = xml_obj.findall(f'./property[@name=\'{prop}\']')
         if not xml_prop:
             raise KeyError(prop)
         return xml_prop[0].text
@@ -165,8 +164,7 @@ def load(self) -> bool | None:
             try:
                 # pylint: disable=no-member
                 tree = lxml.etree.parse(fh)
-            except (EnvironmentError,  # pylint: disable=broad-except
-                    xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError) as err:
+            except (OSError, xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError) as err:
                 self.log.error(err)
                 return False
 
diff --git a/qubesadmin/backup/dispvm.py b/qubesadmin/backup/dispvm.py
index eeb6edd1..715f00b5 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/backup/dispvm.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/backup/dispvm.py
@@ -335,7 +335,7 @@ def run(self) -> bytes | None:
                 )
             if exit_code != 0:
                 raise qubesadmin.exc.BackupRestoreError(
-                    'qvm-backup-restore failed with {}'.format(exit_code),
+                    f'qvm-backup-restore failed with {exit_code}',
                     backup_log=backup_log)
             return backup_log
         except subprocess.CalledProcessError as e:
@@ -350,7 +350,7 @@ def run(self) -> bytes | None:
             except:  # pylint: disable=bare-except
                 backup_log = None
             raise qubesadmin.exc.BackupRestoreError(
-                'qvm-backup-restore failed with {}'.format(e.returncode),
+                f'qvm-backup-restore failed with {e.returncode}',
                 backup_log=backup_log)
         finally:
             if self.dispvm is not None:
diff --git a/qubesadmin/backup/restore.py b/qubesadmin/backup/restore.py
index 9310dd54..0fb65b0c 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/backup/restore.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/backup/restore.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
@@ -47,7 +46,8 @@
 
 import collections
 from subprocess import Popen
-from typing import Callable, TypeVar, Iterable, IO, Generator
+from typing import TypeVar, IO
+from collections.abc import Callable, Iterable, Generator
 
 import qubesadmin
 import qubesadmin.vm
@@ -208,7 +208,7 @@ def load(self, untrusted_header_text: bytes) -> None:
                 continue
             header = self.known_headers[key]
             if key in seen:
-                raise QubesException("Duplicated header line: {}".format(key))
+                raise QubesException(f"Duplicated header line: {key}")
             seen.add(key)
             if getattr(self, header.field, None) is not None:
                 # ignore options already set (potentially forced values)
@@ -234,7 +234,7 @@ def load(self, untrusted_header_text: bytes) -> None:
                         "Unusual compression filter '{f}' found. Use "
                         "--compression-filter={f} to use it anyway.".format(
                             f=value))
-                raise QubesException("Invalid value for header: {}".format(key))
+                raise QubesException(f"Invalid value for header: {key}")
             setattr(self, header.field, value)
 
         self.validate()
@@ -256,23 +256,23 @@ def validate(self) -> None:
             for key in expected_attrs:
                 if getattr(self, key) is None:
                     raise QubesException(
-                        "Backup header lack '{}' info".format(key))
+                        f"Backup header lack '{key}' info")
         else:
             raise QubesException(
-                "Unsupported backup version {}".format(self.version))
+                f"Unsupported backup version {self.version}")
 
     def save(self, filename: str) -> None:
         '''Save backup header into a file'''
         with open(filename, "w", encoding='utf-8') as f_header:
             # make sure 'version' is the first key
-            f_header.write('version={}\n'.format(self.version))
+            f_header.write(f'version={self.version}\n')
             for key, header in self.known_headers.items():
                 if key == 'version':
                     continue
                 attr = header.field
                 if getattr(self, attr) is None:
                     continue
-                f_header.write("{!s}={!s}\n".format(key, getattr(self, attr)))
+                f_header.write(f"{key!s}={getattr(self, attr)!s}\n")
 
 def launch_proc_with_pty(args: list[str], stdin: int | None=None,
                          stdout: int | None=None, stderr: int | None=None,
@@ -327,7 +327,7 @@ def launch_scrypt(action: str, input_name: str, output_name: str,
         actual_prompt = typing.cast(IO, p.stderr).read(len(prompt))
         if actual_prompt != prompt:
             raise QubesException(
-                'Unexpected prompt from scrypt: {}'.format(actual_prompt))
+                f'Unexpected prompt from scrypt: {actual_prompt}')
         pty.write(passphrase.encode('utf-8') + b'\n')
         pty.flush()
     # save it here, so garbage collector would not close it (which would kill
@@ -451,7 +451,7 @@ def collect_tar_output(self) -> None:
             try:
                 new_lines = self.tar2_process.stderr \
                     .read(MAX_STDERR_BYTES).splitlines()
-            except IOError as e:
+            except OSError as e:
                 if e.errno == errno.EAGAIN:
                     return
                 raise
@@ -1128,7 +1128,7 @@ def load_hmac(hmac_text: str) -> str:
             '''
             if any(ord(x) not in range(128) for x in hmac_text):
                 raise QubesException(
-                    "Invalid content of {}".format(hmacfile))
+                    f"Invalid content of {hmacfile}")
             hmac_text_list = hmac_text.strip().split("=")
             if len(hmac_text_list) > 1:
                 hmac_text = hmac_text_list[1].strip()
@@ -1161,7 +1161,7 @@ def load_hmac(hmac_text: str) -> str:
                 with open(f_name + '.dec', 'rb') as f_two:
                     if f_one.read() != f_two.read():
                         raise QubesException(
-                            'Invalid hmac on {}'.format(filename))
+                            f'Invalid hmac on {filename}')
                     return True
 
         with open(os.path.join(self.tmpdir, filename), 'rb') as f_input:
@@ -1174,10 +1174,10 @@ def load_hmac(hmac_text: str) -> str:
 
         if hmac_stderr:
             raise QubesException(
-                "ERROR: verify file {0}: {1}".format(filename, hmac_stderr))
+                f"ERROR: verify file {filename}: {hmac_stderr}")
         self.log.debug("Loading hmac for file %s", filename)
         try:
-            with open(os.path.join(self.tmpdir, hmacfile), 'r',
+            with open(os.path.join(self.tmpdir, hmacfile),
                     encoding='ascii') as f_hmac:
                 hmac = load_hmac(f_hmac.read())
         except UnicodeDecodeError as err:
@@ -1627,7 +1627,7 @@ def new_name_for_conflicting_vm(self, orig_name: str,
         while (new_name in restore_info.keys() or
                new_name in [x.name for x in restore_info.values()] or
                new_name in self.app.domains):
-            new_name = str('{}-{}'.format(orig_name, number))
+            new_name = str(f'{orig_name}-{number}')
             number += 1
             if number == 100:
                 # give up
@@ -1902,7 +1902,7 @@ def _handle_dom0(self, stream: BytesIO) -> None:
         except KeyError:
             home_dir = os.path.expanduser('~')
             local_user = getpass.getuser()
-        restore_home_backupdir = "home-restore-{0}".format(
+        restore_home_backupdir = "home-restore-{}".format(
             time.strftime("%Y-%m-%d-%H%M%S"))
 
         self.log.info("Restoring home of user '%s' to '%s' directory...",
diff --git a/qubesadmin/base.py b/qubesadmin/base.py
index b07af14c..ef5f6341 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/base.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/base.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
@@ -281,7 +280,7 @@ def _parse_type_value(self, prop_type, value):
         prop_type = prop_type.decode('ascii')
         if not prop_type.startswith('type='):
             raise qubesadmin.exc.QubesDaemonCommunicationError(
-                'Invalid type prefix received: {}'.format(prop_type))
+                f'Invalid type prefix received: {prop_type}')
         (_, prop_type) = prop_type.split('=', 1)
         value = value.decode()
         if prop_type == 'str':
@@ -303,7 +302,7 @@ def _parse_type_value(self, prop_type, value):
                 return None
             return self.app.labels.get_blind(value)
         raise qubesadmin.exc.QubesDaemonCommunicationError(
-            'Received invalid value type: {}'.format(prop_type))
+            f'Received invalid value type: {prop_type}')
 
     def _fetch_all_properties(self):
         """
diff --git a/qubesadmin/config.py b/qubesadmin/config.py
index d348bf6b..57d83fe4 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/config.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/config.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/device_protocol.py b/qubesadmin/device_protocol.py
index 29203fbb..243ddd92 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/device_protocol.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/device_protocol.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
@@ -30,25 +29,27 @@
 should be moved to one place.
 """
 
+from __future__ import annotations
 
 import string
 import sys
+import typing
 from enum import Enum
-from typing import Optional, Dict, Any, List, Union, Tuple, Callable
+from typing import Any
+from collections.abc import Callable
 
 import qubesadmin.exc
 from qubesadmin.exc import QubesValueError
 
+if typing.TYPE_CHECKING:
+    from qubesadmin.vm import QubesVM
+
 
 class ProtocolError(AssertionError):
     """
     Raised when something is wrong with data received.
     """
 
-
-QubesVM = 'qubesadmin.vm.QubesVM'
-
-
 class UnexpectedDeviceProperty(qubesadmin.exc.QubesException, ValueError):
     """
     Device has unexpected property such as backend_domain, devclass etc.
@@ -71,7 +72,7 @@ def qbool(value):
         if lcvalue in ("1", "yes", "true", "on"):
             return True
         raise QubesValueError(
-            "Invalid literal for boolean property: {!r}".format(value)
+            f"Invalid literal for boolean property: {value!r}"
         )
 
     return bool(value)
@@ -90,7 +91,7 @@ class DeviceSerializer:
     @classmethod
     def unpack_properties(
         cls, untrusted_serialization: bytes
-    ) -> Tuple[Dict, Dict]:
+    ) -> tuple[dict, dict]:
         """
         Unpacks basic port properties from a serialized encoded string.
 
@@ -106,8 +107,8 @@ def unpack_properties(
             "ascii", errors="strict"
         ).strip()
 
-        properties: Dict[str, str] = {}
-        options: Dict[str, str] = {}
+        properties: dict[str, str] = {}
+        options: dict[str, str] = {}
 
         if not ut_decoded:
             return properties, options
@@ -155,7 +156,7 @@ def unpack_properties(
         return properties, options
 
     @classmethod
-    def pack_property(cls, key: str, value: Optional[str]):
+    def pack_property(cls, key: str, value: str | None):
         """
         Add property `key=value` to serialization.
         """
@@ -175,7 +176,7 @@ def pack_property(cls, key: str, value: Optional[str]):
 
     @staticmethod
     def parse_basic_device_properties(
-        expected_device: "VirtualDevice", properties: Dict[str, Any]
+        expected_device: VirtualDevice, properties: dict[str, Any]
     ):
         """
         Validates properties against an expected port configuration.
@@ -245,7 +246,7 @@ def deserialize_str(value: str) -> str:
     def sanitize_str(
         untrusted_value: str,
         allowed_chars: set,
-        replace_char: Optional[str] = None,
+        replace_char: str | None = None,
         error_message: str = "",
     ) -> str:
         """
@@ -281,9 +282,9 @@ class Port:
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        backend_domain: Optional[QubesVM],
-        port_id: Optional[str],
-        devclass: Optional[str],
+        backend_domain: QubesVM | None,
+        port_id: str | None,
+        devclass: str | None,
     ):
         self.__backend_domain = backend_domain
         self.__port_id = port_id
@@ -329,7 +330,7 @@ def backend_name(self) -> str:
     @classmethod
     def from_qarg(
         cls, representation: str, devclass, domains, blind=False
-    ) -> "Port":
+    ) -> Port:
         """
         Parse qrexec argument <back_vm>+<port_id> to retrieve Port.
         """
@@ -342,7 +343,7 @@ def from_qarg(
     @classmethod
     def from_str(
         cls, representation: str, devclass, domains, blind=False
-    ) -> "Port":
+    ) -> Port:
         """
         Parse string <back_vm>:<port_id> to retrieve Port.
         """
@@ -355,7 +356,7 @@ def from_str(
     @classmethod
     def _parse(
         cls, representation: str, devclass: str, get_domain: Callable, sep: str
-    ) -> "Port":
+    ) -> Port:
         """
         Parse string representation and return instance of Port.
         """
@@ -375,7 +376,7 @@ def port_id(self) -> str:
         return "*"
 
     @property
-    def backend_domain(self) -> Optional[QubesVM]:
+    def backend_domain(self) -> QubesVM | None:
         """Which domain exposed this port. (immutable)"""
         return self.__backend_domain
 
@@ -419,18 +420,18 @@ class VirtualDevice:
 
     def __init__(
         self,
-        port: Optional[Port] = None,
-        device_id: Optional[str] = None,
+        port: Port | None = None,
+        device_id: str | None = None,
     ):
         assert not isinstance(port, AnyPort) or device_id is not None
-        self.port: Optional[Port] = port  # type: ignore
+        self.port: Port | None = port  # type: ignore
         self._device_id = device_id
 
-    def clone(self, **kwargs) -> "VirtualDevice":
+    def clone(self, **kwargs) -> VirtualDevice:
         """
         Clone object and substitute attributes with explicitly given.
         """
-        attr: Dict[str, Any] = {
+        attr: dict[str, Any] = {
             "port": self.port,
             "device_id": self.device_id,
         }
@@ -443,7 +444,7 @@ def port(self) -> Port:
         return self._port
 
     @port.setter
-    def port(self, value: Union[Port, str, None]):
+    def port(self, value: Port | str | None):
         # pylint: disable=missing-function-docstring
         if isinstance(value, Port):
             self._port = value
@@ -469,7 +470,7 @@ def is_device_id_set(self) -> bool:
         return self._device_id is not None
 
     @property
-    def backend_domain(self) -> Optional[QubesVM]:
+    def backend_domain(self) -> QubesVM | None:
         # pylint: disable=missing-function-docstring
         return self.port.backend_domain
 
@@ -562,11 +563,11 @@ def __str__(self):
     def from_qarg(
         cls,
         representation: str,
-        devclass: Optional[str],
+        devclass: str | None,
         domains,
         blind: bool = False,
-        backend: Optional[QubesVM] = None,
-    ) -> "VirtualDevice":
+        backend: QubesVM | None = None,
+    ) -> VirtualDevice:
         """
         Parse qrexec argument <back_vm>+<port_id>:<device_id> to get device info
         """
@@ -583,11 +584,11 @@ def from_qarg(
     def from_str(
         cls,
         representation: str,
-        devclass: Optional[str],
+        devclass: str | None,
         domains,
         blind: bool = False,
-        backend: Optional[QubesVM] = None,
-    ) -> "VirtualDevice":
+        backend: QubesVM | None = None,
+    ) -> VirtualDevice:
         """
         Parse string <back_vm>+<port_id>:<device_id> to get device info
         """
@@ -604,11 +605,11 @@ def from_str(
     def _parse(
         cls,
         representation: str,
-        devclass: Optional[str],
+        devclass: str | None,
         get_domain: Callable,
-        backend: Optional[QubesVM],
+        backend: QubesVM | None,
         sep: str,
-    ) -> "VirtualDevice":
+    ) -> VirtualDevice:
         """
         Parse string representation and return instance of VirtualDevice.
         """
@@ -690,7 +691,7 @@ class DeviceCategory(Enum):
     PCI_USB = ("p0c03**",)
 
     @staticmethod
-    def from_str(interface_encoding: str) -> "DeviceCategory":
+    def from_str(interface_encoding: str) -> DeviceCategory:
         """
         Returns `DeviceCategory` from data encoded in string.
         """
@@ -721,7 +722,7 @@ class DeviceInterface:
     Peripheral device interface wrapper.
     """
 
-    def __init__(self, interface_encoding: str, devclass: Optional[str] = None):
+    def __init__(self, interface_encoding: str, devclass: str | None = None):
         ifc_padded = interface_encoding.ljust(6, "*")
         if devclass:
             if len(ifc_padded) > 6:
@@ -762,7 +763,7 @@ def __init__(self, interface_encoding: str, devclass: Optional[str] = None):
         self._category = DeviceCategory.from_str(self._interface_encoding)
 
     @property
-    def devclass(self) -> Optional[str]:
+    def devclass(self) -> str | None:
         """Immutable Device class such like: 'usb', 'pci' etc."""
         return self._devclass
 
@@ -772,12 +773,12 @@ def category(self) -> DeviceCategory:
         return self._category
 
     @classmethod
-    def unknown(cls) -> "DeviceInterface":
+    def unknown(cls) -> DeviceInterface:
         """Value for unknown device interface."""
         return cls("?******")
 
     @staticmethod
-    def from_str_bulk(interfaces: Optional[str]) -> List["DeviceInterface"]:
+    def from_str_bulk(interfaces: str | None) -> list[DeviceInterface]:
         """Interprets string of interfaces as list of `DeviceInterface`.
 
         Examples:
@@ -884,7 +885,7 @@ def _load_classes(bus: str):
 
         return result
 
-    def matches(self, other: "DeviceInterface") -> bool:
+    def matches(self, other: DeviceInterface) -> bool:
         """
         Check if this `DeviceInterface` (pattern) matches given one.
 
@@ -913,15 +914,15 @@ def __init__(
         self,
         port: Port,
         *,
-        vendor: Optional[str] = None,
-        product: Optional[str] = None,
-        manufacturer: Optional[str] = None,
-        name: Optional[str] = None,
-        serial: Optional[str] = None,
-        interfaces: Optional[List[DeviceInterface]] = None,
-        parent: Optional["DeviceInfo"] = None,
-        attachment: Optional[QubesVM] = None,
-        device_id: Optional[str] = None,
+        vendor: str | None = None,
+        product: str | None = None,
+        manufacturer: str | None = None,
+        name: str | None = None,
+        serial: str | None = None,
+        interfaces: list[DeviceInterface] | None = None,
+        parent: DeviceInfo | None = None,
+        attachment: QubesVM | None = None,
+        device_id: str | None = None,
         **kwargs,
     ):
         super().__init__(port, device_id)
@@ -1044,7 +1045,7 @@ def description(self) -> str:
         return f"{cat}: {vendor} {prod}"
 
     @property
-    def interfaces(self) -> List[DeviceInterface]:
+    def interfaces(self) -> list[DeviceInterface]:
         """
         Non-empty list of device interfaces.
 
@@ -1055,7 +1056,7 @@ def interfaces(self) -> List[DeviceInterface]:
         return self._interfaces
 
     @property
-    def parent_device(self) -> Optional[VirtualDevice]:
+    def parent_device(self) -> VirtualDevice | None:
         """
         The parent device, if any.
 
@@ -1065,7 +1066,7 @@ def parent_device(self) -> Optional[VirtualDevice]:
         return self._parent
 
     @property
-    def subdevices(self) -> List[VirtualDevice]:
+    def subdevices(self) -> list[VirtualDevice]:
         """
         The list of children devices if any.
 
@@ -1082,7 +1083,7 @@ def subdevices(self) -> List[VirtualDevice]:
         ]
 
     @property
-    def attachment(self) -> Optional[QubesVM]:
+    def attachment(self) -> QubesVM | None:
         """
         VM to which device is attached (frontend domain).
         """
@@ -1135,8 +1136,8 @@ def deserialize(
         cls,
         serialization: bytes,
         expected_backend_domain: QubesVM,
-        expected_devclass: Optional[str] = None,
-    ) -> "DeviceInfo":
+        expected_devclass: str | None = None,
+    ) -> DeviceInfo:
         """
         Recovers a serialized object, see: :py:meth:`serialize`.
         """
@@ -1160,7 +1161,7 @@ def deserialize(
     @classmethod
     def _deserialize(
         cls, untrusted_serialization: bytes, expected_device: VirtualDevice
-    ) -> "DeviceInfo":
+    ) -> DeviceInfo:
         """
         Actually deserializes the object.
         """
@@ -1227,7 +1228,7 @@ class UnknownDevice(DeviceInfo):
     """Unknown device - for example, exposed by domain not running currently"""
 
     @staticmethod
-    def from_device(device: VirtualDevice) -> "UnknownDevice":
+    def from_device(device: VirtualDevice) -> UnknownDevice:
         """
         Return `UnknownDevice` based on any virtual device.
         """
@@ -1255,7 +1256,7 @@ def __init__(
         device: VirtualDevice,
         frontend_domain=None,
         options=None,
-        mode: Union[str, AssignmentMode] = "manual",
+        mode: str | AssignmentMode = "manual",
     ):
         if isinstance(device, DeviceInfo):
             device = VirtualDevice(device.port, device.device_id)
@@ -1273,12 +1274,12 @@ def new(
         backend_domain: QubesVM,
         port_id: str,
         devclass: str,
-        device_id: Optional[str] = None,
+        device_id: str | None = None,
         *,
-        frontend_domain: Optional[QubesVM] = None,
+        frontend_domain: QubesVM | None = None,
         options=None,
-        mode: Union[str, AssignmentMode] = "manual",
-    ) -> "DeviceAssignment":
+        mode: str | AssignmentMode = "manual",
+    ) -> DeviceAssignment:
         """Helper method to create a DeviceAssignment object."""
         return cls(
             VirtualDevice(Port(backend_domain, port_id, devclass), device_id),
@@ -1333,7 +1334,7 @@ def __lt__(self, other):
         )
 
     @property
-    def backend_domain(self) -> Optional[QubesVM]:
+    def backend_domain(self) -> QubesVM | None:
         # pylint: disable=missing-function-docstring
         return self.virtual_device.backend_domain
 
@@ -1358,9 +1359,9 @@ def device_id(self) -> str:
         return self.virtual_device.device_id
 
     @property
-    def devices(self) -> List[DeviceInfo]:
+    def devices(self) -> list[DeviceInfo]:
         """Get DeviceInfo objects corresponding to this DeviceAssignment"""
-        result: List[DeviceInfo] = []
+        result: list[DeviceInfo] = []
         if not self.backend_domain:
             return result
         if self.port_id != "*":
@@ -1400,17 +1401,17 @@ def port(self) -> Port:
         return Port(self.backend_domain, self.port_id, self.devclass)
 
     @property
-    def frontend_domain(self) -> Optional[QubesVM]:
+    def frontend_domain(self) -> QubesVM | None:
         """Which domain the device is attached/assigned to."""
         return self.__frontend_domain
 
     @frontend_domain.setter
-    def frontend_domain(self, frontend_domain: Optional[Union[str, QubesVM]]):
+    def frontend_domain(self, frontend_domain: str | QubesVM | None):
         """Which domain the device is attached/assigned to."""
         if isinstance(frontend_domain, str):
             if not self.backend_domain:
                 raise ProtocolError("Cannot determine backend domain")
-            self.__frontend_domain: Optional[QubesVM] = (
+            self.__frontend_domain: QubesVM | None = (
                 self.backend_domain.app.domains[frontend_domain]
             )
         else:
@@ -1449,12 +1450,12 @@ def attach_automatically(self) -> bool:
         )
 
     @property
-    def options(self) -> Dict[str, Any]:
+    def options(self) -> dict[str, Any]:
         """Device options (same as in the legacy API)."""
         return self.__options
 
     @options.setter
-    def options(self, options: Optional[Dict[str, Any]]):
+    def options(self, options: dict[str, Any] | None):
         """Device options (same as in the legacy API)."""
         self.__options = options or {}
 
@@ -1483,7 +1484,7 @@ def deserialize(
         cls,
         serialization: bytes,
         expected_device: VirtualDevice,
-    ) -> "DeviceAssignment":
+    ) -> DeviceAssignment:
         """
         Recovers a serialized object, see: :py:meth:`serialize`.
         """
@@ -1498,7 +1499,7 @@ def _deserialize(
         cls,
         untrusted_serialization: bytes,
         expected_device: VirtualDevice,
-    ) -> "DeviceAssignment":
+    ) -> DeviceAssignment:
         """
         Actually deserializes the object.
         """
diff --git a/qubesadmin/devices.py b/qubesadmin/devices.py
index 228969d1..5df99124 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/devices.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/devices.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
@@ -32,7 +31,7 @@ class is implemented by an extension.
 is :py:class:`str`.
 """
 import itertools
-from typing import Iterable
+from collections.abc import Iterable
 
 import qubesadmin.exc
 from qubesadmin.device_protocol import (
@@ -202,7 +201,7 @@ def get_attached_devices(self) -> Iterable[DeviceAssignment]:
             return
         new_cache = []
         assignments_str = self._vm.qubesd_call(
-            None, "admin.vm.device.{}.Attached".format(self._class)
+            None, f"admin.vm.device.{self._class}.Attached"
         ).decode()
         for assignment_str in assignments_str.splitlines():
             head, _, untrusted_rest = assignment_str.partition(" ")
@@ -234,7 +233,7 @@ def get_assigned_devices(
             return
         new_cache = []
         assignments_str = self._vm.qubesd_call(
-            None, "admin.vm.device.{}.Assigned".format(self._class)
+            None, f"admin.vm.device.{self._class}.Assigned"
         ).decode()
         for assignment_str in assignments_str.splitlines():
             head, _, untrusted_rest = assignment_str.partition(" ")
@@ -257,7 +256,7 @@ def get_exposed_devices(self) -> Iterable[DeviceInfo]:
         List devices exposed by this vm.
         """
         devices: bytes = self._vm.qubesd_call(
-            None, "admin.vm.device.{}.Available".format(self._class)
+            None, f"admin.vm.device.{self._class}.Available"
         )
         for dev_serialized in devices.splitlines():
             yield DeviceInfo.deserialize(
@@ -280,7 +279,7 @@ def update_assignment(
         """
         self._vm.qubesd_call(
             None,
-            "admin.vm.device.{}.Set.assignment".format(self._class),
+            f"admin.vm.device.{self._class}.Set.assignment",
             device.repr_for_qarg,
             required.value.encode("utf-8"),
         )
diff --git a/qubesadmin/events/__init__.py b/qubesadmin/events/__init__.py
index af76d446..4b579341 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/events/__init__.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/events/__init__.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/events/utils.py b/qubesadmin/events/utils.py
index 41cb50ca..f2c16e2c 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/events/utils.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/events/utils.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/exc.py b/qubesadmin/exc.py
index 737bd6d9..afa5c704 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/exc.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/exc.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/features.py b/qubesadmin/features.py
index 8287b677..f7b6768b 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/features.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/features.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/firewall.py b/qubesadmin/firewall.py
index 5298a8aa..0001ff14 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/firewall.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/firewall.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 # pylint: disable=too-few-public-methods
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
@@ -104,7 +103,7 @@ def __init__(self, value, prefixlen=None):
                         'netmask for IPv6 must be between 0 and 128')
                 value += '/' + str(self.prefixlen)
                 self.type = 'dst6'
-            except socket.error:
+            except OSError:
                 try:
                     socket.inet_pton(socket.AF_INET, value)
                     if value.count('.') != 3:
@@ -119,7 +118,7 @@ def __init__(self, value, prefixlen=None):
                             'netmask for IPv4 must be between 0 and 32')
                     value += '/' + str(self.prefixlen)
                     self.type = 'dst4'
-                except socket.error:
+                except OSError:
                     self.type = 'dsthost'
                     self.prefixlen = 0
                     safe_set = string.ascii_lowercase + string.digits + '-._'
@@ -136,7 +135,7 @@ def __init__(self, value, prefixlen=None):
                 if prefixlen > 128:
                     raise ValueError('netmask for IPv6 must be <= 128')
                 self.type = 'dst6'
-            except socket.error:
+            except OSError:
                 try:
                     socket.inet_pton(socket.AF_INET, host)
                     if prefixlen > 32:
@@ -145,7 +144,7 @@ def __init__(self, value, prefixlen=None):
                     if host.count('.') != 3:
                         raise ValueError(
                             'Invalid number of dots in IPv4 address')
-                except socket.error:
+                except OSError:
                     raise ValueError('Invalid IP address: ' + host)
 
         super().__init__(value)
@@ -230,7 +229,7 @@ def pretty_value(self):
         '''Human readable representation'''
         now = datetime.datetime.utcnow()
         duration = (self.datetime - now).total_seconds()
-        return "{:+.0f}s".format(duration)
+        return f"{duration:+.0f}s"
 
 
 class Comment(RuleOption):
@@ -408,7 +407,7 @@ def __eq__(self, other):
         return NotImplemented
 
     def __repr__(self):
-        return 'Rule(\'{}\')'.format(self.rule)
+        return f'Rule(\'{self.rule}\')'
 
 
 class Firewall:
@@ -453,7 +452,7 @@ def save_rules(self, rules=None):
         if rules is None:
             rules = self._rules
         self.vm.qubesd_call(None, 'admin.vm.firewall.Set',
-            payload=(''.join('{}\n'.format(rule.rule)
+            payload=(''.join(f'{rule.rule}\n'
                 for rule in rules)).encode('ascii'))
 
     @property
diff --git a/qubesadmin/label.py b/qubesadmin/label.py
index c615bff3..b31c1156 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/label.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/label.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/spinner.py b/qubesadmin/spinner.py
index 27c4eb9a..76da546e 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/spinner.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/spinner.py
@@ -1,5 +1,3 @@
-# vim: fileencoding=utf-8
-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, https://www.qubes-os.org/
 #
@@ -97,7 +95,7 @@ def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
 
     def show(self, prompt):
         self.hidelen = len(prompt) + 2
-        self.stream.write('{} {}'.format(prompt, next(self.charset)))
+        self.stream.write(f'{prompt} {next(self.charset)}')
         self.stream.flush()
 
     def hide(self):
diff --git a/qubesadmin/storage.py b/qubesadmin/storage.py
index e7924b32..054eab94 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/storage.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/storage.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf-8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tags.py b/qubesadmin/tags.py
index 6460ddb2..d58b51f3 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tags.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tags.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/__init__.py b/qubesadmin/tests/__init__.py
index 07a24ff8..172585a4 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/__init__.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/__init__.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
@@ -172,13 +171,13 @@ def qubesd_call(self, dest, method, arg=None, payload=None,
         call_key = (dest, method, arg, payload)
         self.actual_calls.append(call_key)
         if call_key not in self.expected_calls:
-            raise AssertionError('Unexpected call {!r}'.format(call_key))
+            raise AssertionError(f'Unexpected call {call_key!r}')
         return_data = self.expected_calls[call_key]
         if isinstance(return_data, list):
             try:
                 return_data = return_data.pop(0)
             except IndexError:
-                raise AssertionError('Extra call {!r}'.format(call_key))
+                raise AssertionError(f'Extra call {call_key!r}')
         return self._parse_qubesd_response(return_data)
 
     def run_service(self, dest, service, **kwargs):
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/app.py b/qubesadmin/tests/app.py
index 3b8796cd..972a170a 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/app.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/app.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf-8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
@@ -87,7 +86,7 @@ def test_005_keys(self):
             b'0\x00test-vm class=AppVM state=Running\n' \
             b'test-vm2 class=AppVM state=Running\n'
         self.assertEqual(set(self.app.domains.keys()),
-            set(['test-vm', 'test-vm2']))
+            {'test-vm', 'test-vm2'})
         self.assertAllCalled()
 
     def test_006_values(self):
@@ -97,8 +96,8 @@ def test_006_values(self):
         values = self.app.domains.values()
         for obj in values:
             self.assertIsInstance(obj, qubesadmin.vm.QubesVM)
-        self.assertEqual(set([vm.name for vm in values]),
-            set(['test-vm', 'test-vm2']))
+        self.assertEqual({vm.name for vm in values},
+            {'test-vm', 'test-vm2'})
         self.assertAllCalled()
 
     def test_007_getitem_blind_mode(self):
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/backup/__init__.py b/qubesadmin/tests/backup/__init__.py
index dfc73fd0..ad5d215a 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/backup/__init__.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/backup/__init__.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/backup/backupcompatibility.py b/qubesadmin/tests/backup/backupcompatibility.py
index acd48fa4..f005db95 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/backup/backupcompatibility.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/backup/backupcompatibility.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
@@ -35,10 +34,7 @@
 
 import contextlib
 
-try:
-    from unittest import mock
-except ImportError:
-    import mock
+from unittest import mock
 import re
 
 import multiprocessing
@@ -1039,11 +1035,11 @@ def create_v4_files(self):
         # normal AppVMs
         for vm in ('test-work', 'test-d8test', 'test-proxy',
                 'test-custom-template-appvm', 'test-net'):
-            os.mkdir(self.fullpath('appvms/{}'.format(vm)))
+            os.mkdir(self.fullpath(f'appvms/{vm}'))
             self.create_whitelisted_appmenus(self.fullpath(
-                'appvms/{}/whitelisted-appmenus.list'.format(vm)))
+                f'appvms/{vm}/whitelisted-appmenus.list'))
             self.create_private_img(self.fullpath(
-                'appvms/{}/private.img'.format(vm)))
+                f'appvms/{vm}/private.img'))
 
         # setup firewall only on one VM
         with open(self.fullpath("appvms/test-work/firewall.xml"), "wb") \
@@ -1062,16 +1058,16 @@ def create_v4_files(self):
 
         # StandaloneVMs
         for vm in ('test-standalonevm', 'test-hvm'):
-            os.mkdir(self.fullpath('appvms/{}'.format(vm)))
+            os.mkdir(self.fullpath(f'appvms/{vm}'))
             self.create_whitelisted_appmenus(self.fullpath(
-                'appvms/{}/whitelisted-appmenus.list'.format(vm)))
+                f'appvms/{vm}/whitelisted-appmenus.list'))
             self.create_private_img(self.fullpath(
-                'appvms/{}/private.img'.format(vm)))
+                f'appvms/{vm}/private.img'))
             self.create_sparse(
-                self.fullpath('appvms/{}/root.img'.format(vm)), 10*2**30)
-            self.fill_image(self.fullpath('appvms/{}/root.img'.format(vm)),
+                self.fullpath(f'appvms/{vm}/root.img'), 10*2**30)
+            self.fill_image(self.fullpath(f'appvms/{vm}/root.img'),
                 1024*1024, True,
-                signature='{}/root'.format(vm).encode())
+                signature=f'{vm}/root'.encode())
 
         # only for Linux one
         os.mkdir(self.fullpath('appvms/test-standalonevm/apps.templates'))
@@ -1120,7 +1116,7 @@ def scrypt_encrypt(self, f_name, output_name=None, password='qubes',
         if f_name == 'backup-header':
             scrypt_pass = 'backup-header!' + password
         else:
-            scrypt_pass = '20161020T123455-1234!{}!{}'.format(f_name, password)
+            scrypt_pass = f'20161020T123455-1234!{f_name}!{password}'
         with subprocess.Popen(['scrypt', 'enc', '-P', '-t', '0.1',
                 os.path.join(basedir, f_name),
                 os.path.join(basedir, output_name)],
@@ -1130,7 +1126,7 @@ def scrypt_encrypt(self, f_name, output_name=None, password='qubes',
         return output_name
 
     def calculate_hmac(self, f_name, algorithm="sha512", password="qubes"):
-        with open(self.fullpath(f_name), "r", encoding="utf-8") as f_data:
+        with open(self.fullpath(f_name), encoding="utf-8") as f_data:
             with open(self.fullpath(f_name+".hmac"), "w",
                       encoding="utf-8") as f_hmac:
                 subprocess.check_call(
@@ -1149,7 +1145,7 @@ def handle_v3_file(self, f_name, subdir, stream, compressed=True,
         # create inner archive
         tar_cmdline = ["tar", "-Pc", '--sparse',
                '-C', self.fullpath(os.path.dirname(f_name)),
-               '--xform', 's:^%s:%s\\0:' % (
+               '--xform', 's:^{}:{}\\0:'.format(
                    os.path.basename(f_name),
                    subdir),
                os.path.basename(f_name)
@@ -1185,7 +1181,7 @@ def handle_v3_file(self, f_name, subdir, stream, compressed=True,
 
         for part in sorted(os.listdir(stage1_dir)):
             if not re.match(
-                    r"^{}.[0-9][0-9][0-9]$".format(os.path.basename(f_name)),
+                    fr"^{os.path.basename(f_name)}.[0-9][0-9][0-9]$",
                     part):
                 continue
             part_with_dir = os.path.join(subdir, part)
@@ -1199,7 +1195,7 @@ def handle_v4_file(self, f_name, subdir, stream, compressed="gzip"):
         # create inner archive
         tar_cmdline = ["tar", "-Pc", '--sparse',
                '-C', self.fullpath(os.path.dirname(f_name)),
-               '--xform', 's:^%s:%s\\0:' % (
+               '--xform', 's:^{}:{}\\0:'.format(
                    os.path.basename(f_name),
                    subdir),
                os.path.basename(f_name)
@@ -1224,7 +1220,7 @@ def handle_v4_file(self, f_name, subdir, stream, compressed="gzip"):
 
         for part in sorted(os.listdir(stage1_dir)):
             if not re.match(
-                    r"^{}.[0-9][0-9][0-9]$".format(os.path.basename(f_name)),
+                    fr"^{os.path.basename(f_name)}.[0-9][0-9][0-9]$",
                     part):
                 continue
             part_with_dir = os.path.join(subdir, part)
@@ -1259,7 +1255,7 @@ def create_v3_backup(self, encrypted=True, compressed=True):
                 qubesxml = xml_path.read_bytes()
                 if encrypted:
                     for vmname, subdir in MANGLED_SUBDIRS_R2.items():
-                        qubesxml = re.sub(r"[a-z-]*/{}".format(vmname).encode(),
+                        qubesxml = re.sub(fr"[a-z-]*/{vmname}".encode(),
                                           subdir.encode(), qubesxml)
                     f_qubesxml.write(qubesxml)
                 else:
@@ -1327,7 +1323,7 @@ def create_v4_backup(self, compressed="gzip", big=False):
                 qubesxml = xml_path.read_bytes()
                 for vmname, subdir in MANGLED_SUBDIRS_R4.items():
                     qubesxml = re.sub(
-                        r'backup-path">[a-z-]*/{}'.format(vmname).encode(),
+                        fr'backup-path">[a-z-]*/{vmname}'.encode(),
                         ('backup-path">' + subdir).encode(),
                         qubesxml)
                 f_qubesxml.write(qubesxml)
@@ -1481,8 +1477,8 @@ def setup_expected_calls(self, parsed_qubes_xml, templates_map=None):
                          f"backend_domain='{backend_domain}' mode='required' "
                          f"frontend_domain='{name}'".encode())
                     self.app.expected_calls[
-                        (name, 'admin.vm.device.{}.Assign'.format(bus),
-                        '{}+{}+_'.format(backend_domain, port_id),
+                        (name, f'admin.vm.device.{bus}.Assign',
+                        f'{backend_domain}+{port_id}+_',
                         encoded_options)] = b'0\0'
 
             for feature, value in vm['features'].items():
@@ -1533,7 +1529,7 @@ def create_limited_tmpdir(self, size):
         # pylint: disable=consider-using-with
         tmpdir = tempfile.TemporaryDirectory()
         subprocess.run(['sudo', 'mount', '-t', 'tmpfs', 'none',
-                        tmpdir.name, '-o', 'size={}'.format(size)],
+                        tmpdir.name, '-o', f'size={size}'],
                        check=True)
         self.addCleanup(self.cleanup_tmpdir, tmpdir)
         return tmpdir.name
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/backup/dispvm.py b/qubesadmin/tests/backup/dispvm.py
index 9fd70c69..6ef854ec 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/backup/dispvm.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/backup/dispvm.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/devices.py b/qubesadmin/tests/devices.py
index 6b923856..8898dff6 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/devices.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/devices.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/errors.py b/qubesadmin/tests/errors.py
index c4157471..449725e9 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/errors.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/errors.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
@@ -48,7 +47,7 @@ def test_002_exception_with_numbers(self):
             with self.assertRaises(qubesadmin.exc.QubesException) as context:
                 list(self.app.domains)
         except TypeError as e:
-            self.fail('TypeError: {!s}'.format(e))
+            self.fail(f'TypeError: {e!s}')
         self.assertEqual(str(context.exception), 'An error occurred: 1, 2')
 
     def test_010_empty(self):
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/events.py b/qubesadmin/tests/events.py
index 8900f8d0..c4bd6174 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/events.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/events.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/features.py b/qubesadmin/tests/features.py
index cf980a69..dcc8652f 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/features.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/features.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/firewall.py b/qubesadmin/tests/firewall.py
index e6d788e9..baf62d3e 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/firewall.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/firewall.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/label.py b/qubesadmin/tests/label.py
index f5b2a4ab..8d6b42cd 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/label.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/label.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
@@ -33,7 +32,7 @@ def test_000_list(self):
         for label in self.app.labels.values():
             self.assertNotIn(label.name, seen)
             seen.add(label.name)
-        self.assertEqual(seen, set(['green', 'red', 'black']))
+        self.assertEqual(seen, {'green', 'red', 'black'})
 
     def test_001_list_names(self):
         self.app.expected_calls[
@@ -43,7 +42,7 @@ def test_001_list_names(self):
         for label in self.app.labels:
             self.assertNotIn(label, seen)
             seen.add(label)
-        self.assertEqual(seen, set(['green', 'red', 'black']))
+        self.assertEqual(seen, {'green', 'red', 'black'})
 
     def test_002_list_keys(self):
         self.app.expected_calls[
@@ -53,7 +52,7 @@ def test_002_list_keys(self):
         for label in self.app.labels.keys():
             self.assertNotIn(label, seen)
             seen.add(label)
-        self.assertEqual(seen, set(['green', 'red', 'black']))
+        self.assertEqual(seen, {'green', 'red', 'black'})
 
     def test_003_list_items(self):
         self.app.expected_calls[
@@ -64,7 +63,7 @@ def test_003_list_items(self):
             self.assertEqual(name, label.name)
             self.assertNotIn(name, seen)
             seen.add(name)
-        self.assertEqual(seen, set(['green', 'red', 'black']))
+        self.assertEqual(seen, {'green', 'red', 'black'})
 
     def test_010_get(self):
         self.app.expected_calls[
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/mock_app.py b/qubesadmin/tests/mock_app.py
index 1a707bde..89df66ba 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/mock_app.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/mock_app.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
@@ -65,7 +64,7 @@
 from unittest import mock
 from copy import deepcopy
 
-from typing import List, Optional, Dict, Tuple, Any
+from typing import Any
 
 import qubesadmin.events
 from qubesadmin.tests import QubesTest
@@ -263,7 +262,7 @@ def __init__(
         qube_name: str,
         volume_type: str,
         outdated: bool = False,
-        usage_perc: Optional[float] = 0.0,
+        usage_perc: float | None = 0.0,
         save_on_stop: bool = False,
     ):
         """
@@ -341,11 +340,11 @@ def __init__(
         qapp: QubesTest,
         klass: str = "AppVM",
         running: bool = False,
-        features: Optional[Dict] = None,
-        usage: Optional[float] = 0.0,
-        tags: Optional[List] = None,
-        firewall_rules: Optional[List[Dict[str, str]]] = None,
-        override_default_props: Optional[Dict] = None,
+        features: dict | None = None,
+        usage: float | None = 0.0,
+        tags: list | None = None,
+        firewall_rules: list[dict[str, str]] | None = None,
+        override_default_props: dict | None = None,
         **kwargs,
     ):
         """
@@ -645,7 +644,7 @@ def setup_device_calls(self):
             (self.name, "admin.vm.device.mic.Attached", None, None)
         ] = b"0\x00"
 
-    def setup_firewall_rules(self, rule_list: List[Dict[str, str]]):
+    def setup_firewall_rules(self, rule_list: list[dict[str, str]]):
         """setup firewall with provided rules: rules should be provided as
         list of dictionaries. Typical keys are action, proto, dsthost,
         dstports, icmptype, specialtarget, expire and comment"""
@@ -693,8 +692,8 @@ def __init__(
         port: str,
         product: str,
         vendor: str,
-        attached: Optional[str] = None,
-        assigned: Optional[List[Tuple[str, str, list[Any] | None]]] = None,
+        attached: str | None = None,
+        assigned: list[tuple[str, str, list[Any] | None]] | None = None,
     ):
         """
         :param qapp: QubesTest object
@@ -826,7 +825,7 @@ def __init__(self):
         self._devices = []
         self.app.qubesd_connection_type = "qrexec"
 
-        self._qubes: Dict[str, MockQube] = {"dom0": MockAdminVM(self)}
+        self._qubes: dict[str, MockQube] = {"dom0": MockAdminVM(self)}
 
         labels = [
             "red",
@@ -905,7 +904,7 @@ def populate_feature_calls(self):
                         + b"\x00"
                     )
 
-    def set_global_property(self, property_name: str, value: Optional[str]):
+    def set_global_property(self, property_name: str, value: str | None):
         self._global_properties[property_name].value = value
 
     def update_global_properties(self):
@@ -1254,7 +1253,7 @@ def __init__(
         self,
         event_subject: str,
         event_name: str,
-        additional_keys: Optional[List[Tuple[str, str]]] = None,
+        additional_keys: list[tuple[str, str]] | None = None,
     ):
         """
         event subject - the name of the object that fired the event
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/storage.py b/qubesadmin/tests/storage.py
index 76d168ec..f2cd6f03 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/storage.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/storage.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
@@ -286,7 +285,7 @@ def test_000_list(self):
             self.assertNotIn(pool.name, seen)
             seen.add(pool.name)
 
-        self.assertEqual(seen, set(['file', 'lvm']))
+        self.assertEqual(seen, {'file', 'lvm'})
         self.assertAllCalled()
 
     def test_010_config(self):
@@ -354,7 +353,7 @@ def test_020_volumes(self):
             self.assertNotIn(volume.vid, seen)
             seen.add(volume.vid)
 
-        self.assertEqual(seen, set(['vol1', 'vol2']))
+        self.assertEqual(seen, {'vol1', 'vol2'})
         self.assertAllCalled()
 
     def test_030_pool_drivers(self):
@@ -362,9 +361,9 @@ def test_030_pool_drivers(self):
             ('dom0', 'admin.pool.ListDrivers', None, None)] = \
             b'0\x00file dir_path revisions_to_keep\n' \
             b'lvm volume_group thin_pool revisions_to_keep\n'
-        self.assertEqual(set(self.app.pool_drivers), set(['file', 'lvm']))
+        self.assertEqual(set(self.app.pool_drivers), {'file', 'lvm'})
         self.assertEqual(set(self.app.pool_driver_parameters('file')),
-            set(['dir_path', 'revisions_to_keep']))
+            {'dir_path', 'revisions_to_keep'})
         self.assertAllCalled()
 
     def test_040_add(self):
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/tags.py b/qubesadmin/tests/tags.py
index f7e251bb..d1ea9662 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/tags.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/tags.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/__init__.py b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/__init__.py
index 83883150..64d43e7f 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/__init__.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/__init__.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# encoding=utf-8
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, https://www.qubes-os.org/
 #
@@ -29,10 +28,7 @@
 class StdoutBuffer:
     def __init__(self):
         self.orig_stdout = None
-        if sys.version_info[0] >= 3:
-            self.stdout = io.StringIO()
-        else:
-            self.stdout = io.BytesIO()
+        self.stdout = io.StringIO()
 
     def __enter__(self):
         self.orig_stdout = sys.stdout
@@ -47,10 +43,7 @@ def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc_val, exc_tb):
 class StderrBuffer:
     def __init__(self):
         self.orig_stderr = None
-        if sys.version_info[0] >= 3:
-            self.stderr = io.StringIO()
-        else:
-            self.stderr = io.BytesIO()
+        self.stderr = io.StringIO()
 
     def __enter__(self):
         self.orig_stderr = sys.stderr
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qubes_prefs.py b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qubes_prefs.py
index 48112d5d..97fdc7b0 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qubes_prefs.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qubes_prefs.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_backup.py b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_backup.py
index 24d57d4e..430cd000 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_backup.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_backup.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_backup_restore.py b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_backup_restore.py
index 3e845969..e71d13ba 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_backup_restore.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_backup_restore.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_check.py b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_check.py
index ad59f038..0104168c 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_check.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_check.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf-8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_clone.py b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_clone.py
index 63063374..20c35add 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_clone.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_clone.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_create.py b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_create.py
index e1f29c67..7c846211 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_create.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_create.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_features.py b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_features.py
index 4a6bad8e..8e92c7dd 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_features.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_features.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_firewall.py b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_firewall.py
index b6d6ef34..00d0009e 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_firewall.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_firewall.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# encoding=utf-8
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
@@ -172,7 +171,7 @@ def test_002_list_expire(self):
                 r'0   accept  qubes-os.org  tcp       443      -         '
                 r'      -          \+(.{4})s  -',
                 line)
-            self.assertTrue(match, "no match for: {!r}".format(line))
+            self.assertTrue(match, f"no match for: {line!r}")
             duration = int(match.group(1))
             self.assertTrue(3590 < duration <= 3600)
 
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_kill.py b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_kill.py
index 081fd83e..732a9338 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_kill.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_kill.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf-8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_ls.py b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_ls.py
index 23a1d6f0..0da09c1c 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_ls.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_ls.py
@@ -345,7 +345,7 @@ def test_100_list_with_status(self):
         self.app.expected_calls[
             ('vm1', 'admin.vm.property.GetAll', None, None)] = \
             b'0\x00' + ''.join(
-                '{} default=True {}\n'.format(key, value)
+                f'{key} default=True {value}\n'
                 for key, value in props.items()).encode()
 
         # setup sys-net
@@ -353,7 +353,7 @@ def test_100_list_with_status(self):
         self.app.expected_calls[
             ('sys-net', 'admin.vm.property.GetAll', None, None)] = \
             b'0\x00' + ''.join(
-                '{} default=True {}\n'.format(key, value)
+                f'{key} default=True {value}\n'
                 for key, value in props.items()).encode()
 
         # setup template1
@@ -362,7 +362,7 @@ def test_100_list_with_status(self):
         self.app.expected_calls[
             ('template1', 'admin.vm.property.GetAll', None, None)] = \
             b'0\x00' + ''.join(
-                '{} default=True {}\n'.format(key, value)
+                f'{key} default=True {value}\n'
                 for key, value in props.items()).encode()
 
         with qubesadmin.tests.tools.StdoutBuffer() as stdout:
@@ -395,7 +395,7 @@ def test_101_list_selected(self):
         self.app.expected_calls[
             ('vm1', 'admin.vm.property.GetAll', None, None)] = \
             b'0\x00' + ''.join(
-                '{} default=True {}\n'.format(key, value)
+                f'{key} default=True {value}\n'
                 for key, value in props.items()).encode()
 
         # setup sys-net
@@ -403,7 +403,7 @@ def test_101_list_selected(self):
         self.app.expected_calls[
             ('sys-net', 'admin.vm.property.GetAll', None, None)] = \
             b'0\x00' + ''.join(
-                '{} default=True {}\n'.format(key, value)
+                f'{key} default=True {value}\n'
                 for key, value in props.items()).encode()
 
         with qubesadmin.tests.tools.StdoutBuffer() as stdout:
@@ -468,7 +468,7 @@ def test_111_filter_class(self):
         self.app.expected_calls[
             ('template1', 'admin.vm.property.GetAll', None, None)] = \
             b'0\x00' + ''.join(
-                '{} default=True {}\n'.format(key, value)
+                f'{key} default=True {value}\n'
                 for key, value in props.items()).encode()
 
         with qubesadmin.tests.tools.StdoutBuffer() as stdout:
@@ -495,7 +495,7 @@ def test_112_filter_label(self):
         self.app.expected_calls[
             ('sys-net', 'admin.vm.property.GetAll', None, None)] = \
             b'0\x00' + ''.join(
-                '{} default=True {}\n'.format(key, value)
+                f'{key} default=True {value}\n'
                 for key, value in props.items()).encode()
 
         # setup template1
@@ -504,7 +504,7 @@ def test_112_filter_label(self):
         self.app.expected_calls[
             ('template1', 'admin.vm.property.GetAll', None, None)] = \
             b'0\x00' + ''.join(
-                '{} default=True {}\n'.format(key, value)
+                f'{key} default=True {value}\n'
                 for key, value in props.items()).encode()
 
         with qubesadmin.tests.tools.StdoutBuffer() as stdout:
@@ -530,7 +530,7 @@ def test_113_filter_template_source(self):
         self.app.expected_calls[
             ('sys-net', 'admin.vm.property.GetAll', None, None)] = \
             b'0\x00' + ''.join(
-                '{} default=True {}\n'.format(key, value)
+                f'{key} default=True {value}\n'
                 for key, value in props.items()).encode()
 
         # setup template1
@@ -539,7 +539,7 @@ def test_113_filter_template_source(self):
         self.app.expected_calls[
             ('template1', 'admin.vm.property.GetAll', None, None)] = \
             b'0\x00' + ''.join(
-                '{} default=True {}\n'.format(key, value)
+                f'{key} default=True {value}\n'
                 for key, value in props.items()).encode()
 
         with qubesadmin.tests.tools.StdoutBuffer() as stdout:
@@ -566,7 +566,7 @@ def test_114_filter_netvm_is(self):
         self.app.expected_calls[
             ('sys-net', 'admin.vm.property.GetAll', None, None)] = \
             b'0\x00' + ''.join(
-                '{} default=True {}\n'.format(key, value)
+                f'{key} default=True {value}\n'
                 for key, value in props.items()).encode()
 
         # setup template1
@@ -575,7 +575,7 @@ def test_114_filter_netvm_is(self):
         self.app.expected_calls[
             ('template1', 'admin.vm.property.GetAll', None, None)] = \
             b'0\x00' + ''.join(
-                '{} default=True {}\n'.format(key, value)
+                f'{key} default=True {value}\n'
                 for key, value in props.items()).encode()
 
         with qubesadmin.tests.tools.StdoutBuffer() as stdout:
@@ -603,7 +603,7 @@ def test_115_internal_servicevm_pending_updates(self):
         self.app.expected_calls[
             ('internalvm', 'admin.vm.property.GetAll', None, None)] = \
             b'0\x00' + ''.join(
-                '{} default=True {}\n'.format(key, value)
+                f'{key} default=True {value}\n'
                 for key, value in props.items()).encode()
 
         self.app.expected_calls[
@@ -623,7 +623,7 @@ def test_115_internal_servicevm_pending_updates(self):
         self.app.expected_calls[
             ('service-vm', 'admin.vm.property.GetAll', None, None)] = \
             b'0\x00' + ''.join(
-                '{} default=True {}\n'.format(key, value)
+                f'{key} default=True {value}\n'
                 for key, value in props.items()).encode()
 
         self.app.expected_calls[
@@ -681,7 +681,7 @@ def test_116_features(self):
         self.app.expected_calls[
             ('internalvm', 'admin.vm.property.GetAll', None, None)] = \
             b'0\x00' + ''.join(
-                '{} default=True {}\n'.format(key, value)
+                f'{key} default=True {value}\n'
                 for key, value in props.items()).encode()
 
         self.app.expected_calls[
@@ -693,7 +693,7 @@ def test_116_features(self):
         self.app.expected_calls[
             ('service-vm', 'admin.vm.property.GetAll', None, None)] = \
             b'0\x00' + ''.join(
-                '{} default=True {}\n'.format(key, value)
+                f'{key} default=True {value}\n'
                 for key, value in props.items()).encode()
 
         self.app.expected_calls[
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_notes.py b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_notes.py
index 20956a00..9abf6729 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_notes.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_notes.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf-8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_pause.py b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_pause.py
index 88f89283..da9b1865 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_pause.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_pause.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_pool.py b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_pool.py
index cce5e7a5..1e999b35 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_pool.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_pool.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_pool_legacy.py b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_pool_legacy.py
index ef6ed578..6e47fada 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_pool_legacy.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_pool_legacy.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_prefs.py b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_prefs.py
index 97754eab..1280bab2 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_prefs.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_prefs.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
@@ -20,8 +19,6 @@
 
 # pylint: disable=missing-docstring
 
-import sys
-
 import qubesadmin.tests
 import qubesadmin.tests.tools
 import qubesadmin.tools.qvm_prefs
@@ -56,11 +53,8 @@ def test_001_no_vm(self):
         with self.assertRaises(SystemExit):
             with qubesadmin.tests.tools.StderrBuffer() as stderr:
                 qubesadmin.tools.qvm_prefs.main([], app=self.app)
-        if sys.version_info[0] == 2:
-            self.assertIn('too few arguments', stderr.getvalue())
-        else:
-            self.assertIn('error: the following arguments are required: VMNAME',
-                stderr.getvalue())
+        self.assertIn('error: the following arguments are required: VMNAME',
+            stderr.getvalue())
         self.assertAllCalled()
 
     def test_002_set_property(self):
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_remove.py b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_remove.py
index 6f87038a..b7c787b4 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_remove.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_remove.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf-8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_run.py b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_run.py
index 15044e42..86ac68c8 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_run.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_run.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf-8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_service.py b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_service.py
index 3e94f175..72713c74 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_service.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_service.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_shutdown.py b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_shutdown.py
index e4257967..caa93c49 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_shutdown.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_shutdown.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf-8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_start.py b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_start.py
index b6ab478a..3c430ff1 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_start.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_start.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf-8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_start_daemon.py b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_start_daemon.py
index 666175da..79d35114 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_start_daemon.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_start_daemon.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf-8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_tags.py b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_tags.py
index b151d61f..2c135541 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_tags.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_tags.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_template.py b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_template.py
index 12d503ad..3798fa50 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_template.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_template.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
@@ -434,7 +433,7 @@ def test_100_install_local_success(
         mock_call.side_effect = self.add_new_vm_side_effect
         mock_time = mock.Mock(wraps=datetime.datetime)
         mock_time.now.return_value = \
-            datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 15, 30, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
+            datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 15, 30, tzinfo=datetime.UTC)
         with mock.patch('qubesadmin.tools.qvm_template.LOCK_FILE',
                         '/tmp/test.lock'), \
                 mock.patch('datetime.datetime', new=mock_time), \
@@ -549,7 +548,7 @@ def test_101_install_local_postprocargs_success(
         mock_call.side_effect = self.add_new_vm_side_effect
         mock_time = mock.Mock(wraps=datetime.datetime)
         mock_time.now.return_value = \
-            datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 15, 30, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
+            datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 15, 30, tzinfo=datetime.UTC)
         with mock.patch('qubesadmin.tools.qvm_template.LOCK_FILE',
                     '/tmp/test.lock'), \
                 mock.patch('datetime.datetime', new=mock_time), \
@@ -916,7 +915,7 @@ def test_107_install_download_success(
         mock_call.side_effect = self.add_new_vm_side_effect
         mock_time = mock.Mock(wraps=datetime.datetime)
         mock_time.now.return_value = \
-            datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 15, 30, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
+            datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 15, 30, tzinfo=datetime.UTC)
         with mock.patch('qubesadmin.tools.qvm_template.LOCK_FILE',
                     '/tmp/test.lock'), \
                 mock.patch('datetime.datetime', new=mock_time), \
@@ -1019,7 +1018,7 @@ def test_108_install_download_fail_exists(
         mock_dl_list.return_value = dl_list
         mock_time = mock.Mock(wraps=datetime.datetime)
         mock_time.now.return_value = \
-            datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 15, 30, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
+            datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 15, 30, tzinfo=datetime.UTC)
         with mock.patch('qubesadmin.tools.qvm_template.LOCK_FILE',
                     '/tmp/test.lock'), \
                 mock.patch('datetime.datetime', new=mock_time), \
@@ -1097,7 +1096,7 @@ def test_109_install_fail_extract(
         mock_call.side_effect = self.add_new_vm_side_effect
         mock_time = mock.Mock(wraps=datetime.datetime)
         mock_time.now.return_value = \
-            datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 15, 30, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
+            datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 15, 30, tzinfo=datetime.UTC)
         # Extraction error
         mock_extract.return_value = False
         with mock.patch('qubesadmin.tools.qvm_template.LOCK_FILE',
@@ -1504,7 +1503,7 @@ def test_120_b_qrexec_repoquery_success_dnf5(self, mock_payload):
                 'qubes-templates-itl',
                 228848654,
                 datetime.datetime(2024, 5, 27, 21, 57, 22,
-                                  tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc),
+                                  tzinfo=datetime.UTC),
                 'GPLv3+',
                 'http://www.qubes-os.org',
                 'Qubes OS template for debian-12-minimal',
@@ -2843,7 +2842,7 @@ def test_152_list_templates_extras_success(self, mock_query):
                 'qubes-templates-itl',
                 1048576,
                 datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 14, 30,
-                    tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc),
+                    tzinfo=datetime.UTC),
                 'GPL',
                 'https://qubes-os.org',
                 'Qubes template for fedora-31',
@@ -2932,7 +2931,7 @@ def test_153_list_templates_upgrades_success(self, mock_query):
                 'qubes-templates-itl',
                 1048576,
                 datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 14, 30,
-                    tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc),
+                    tzinfo=datetime.UTC),
                 'GPL',
                 'https://qubes-os.org',
                 'Qubes template for fedora-31',
@@ -2946,7 +2945,7 @@ def test_153_list_templates_upgrades_success(self, mock_query):
                 'qubes-templates-itl',
                 1048576,
                 datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 14, 30,
-                    tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc),
+                    tzinfo=datetime.UTC),
                 'GPL',
                 'https://qubes-os.org',
                 'Qubes template for fedora-31',
@@ -2960,7 +2959,7 @@ def test_153_list_templates_upgrades_success(self, mock_query):
                 'qubes-templates-itl',
                 1048576,
                 datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 14, 30,
-                    tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc),
+                    tzinfo=datetime.UTC),
                 'GPL',
                 'https://qubes-os.org',
                 'Qubes template for fedora-31',
@@ -3036,7 +3035,7 @@ def __test_list_templates_all_success(self, operation,
                 'qubes-templates-itl',
                 1048576,
                 datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 14, 30,
-                    tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc),
+                    tzinfo=datetime.UTC),
                 'GPL',
                 'https://qubes-os.org',
                 'Qubes template for fedora-31',
@@ -3247,7 +3246,7 @@ def test_170_search_success(self, mock_query):
                 'qubes-templates-itl',
                 1048576,
                 datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 14, 30,
-                    tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc),
+                    tzinfo=datetime.UTC),
                 'GPL',
                 'https://qubes-os.org',
                 'Qubes template for fedora-31',
@@ -3261,7 +3260,7 @@ def test_170_search_success(self, mock_query):
                 'qubes-templates-itl',
                 1048576,
                 datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 14, 30,
-                    tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc),
+                    tzinfo=datetime.UTC),
                 'GPL',
                 'https://qubes-os.org',
                 'Older Qubes template for fedora-31',
@@ -3275,7 +3274,7 @@ def test_170_search_success(self, mock_query):
                 'qubes-templates-itl',
                 1048576,
                 datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 14, 30,
-                    tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc),
+                    tzinfo=datetime.UTC),
                 'GPL',
                 'https://qubes-os.org/test-vm',
                 'Qubes template for fedora-31',
@@ -3332,7 +3331,7 @@ def test_171_search_summary_success(self, mock_query):
                 'qubes-templates-itl',
                 1048576,
                 datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 14, 30,
-                    tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc),
+                    tzinfo=datetime.UTC),
                 'GPL',
                 'https://qubes-os.org',
                 'Qubes template for test-vm :)',
@@ -3346,7 +3345,7 @@ def test_171_search_summary_success(self, mock_query):
                 'qubes-templates-itl',
                 1048576,
                 datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 14, 30,
-                    tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc),
+                    tzinfo=datetime.UTC),
                 'GPL',
                 'https://qubes-os.org',
                 'test-vm',
@@ -3360,7 +3359,7 @@ def test_171_search_summary_success(self, mock_query):
                 'qubes-templates-itl',
                 1048576,
                 datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 14, 30,
-                    tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc),
+                    tzinfo=datetime.UTC),
                 'GPL',
                 'https://qubes-os.org',
                 'Qubes template for test-vm',
@@ -3374,7 +3373,7 @@ def test_171_search_summary_success(self, mock_query):
                 'qubes-templates-itl',
                 1048576,
                 datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 14, 30,
-                    tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc),
+                    tzinfo=datetime.UTC),
                 'GPL',
                 'https://qubes-os.org',
                 'Qubes template for test-vm-2',
@@ -3414,7 +3413,7 @@ def test_172_search_namesummaryexact_success(self, mock_query):
                 'qubes-templates-itl',
                 1048576,
                 datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 14, 30,
-                    tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc),
+                    tzinfo=datetime.UTC),
                 'GPL',
                 'https://qubes-os.org',
                 'test-vm',
@@ -3428,7 +3427,7 @@ def test_172_search_namesummaryexact_success(self, mock_query):
                 'qubes-templates-itl',
                 1048576,
                 datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 14, 30,
-                    tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc),
+                    tzinfo=datetime.UTC),
                 'GPL',
                 'https://qubes-os.org',
                 'test-vm',
@@ -3442,7 +3441,7 @@ def test_172_search_namesummaryexact_success(self, mock_query):
                 'qubes-templates-itl',
                 1048576,
                 datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 14, 30,
-                    tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc),
+                    tzinfo=datetime.UTC),
                 'GPL',
                 'https://qubes-os.org',
                 'test-vm',
@@ -3481,7 +3480,7 @@ def test_173_search_multiquery_success(self, mock_query):
                 'qubes-templates-itl',
                 1048576,
                 datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 14, 30,
-                    tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc),
+                    tzinfo=datetime.UTC),
                 'GPL',
                 'https://qubes-os.org',
                 'test-vm',
@@ -3495,7 +3494,7 @@ def test_173_search_multiquery_success(self, mock_query):
                 'qubes-templates-itl',
                 1048576,
                 datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 14, 30,
-                    tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc),
+                    tzinfo=datetime.UTC),
                 'GPL',
                 'https://qubes-os.org',
                 'test-vm',
@@ -3509,7 +3508,7 @@ def test_173_search_multiquery_success(self, mock_query):
                 'qubes-templates-itl',
                 1048576,
                 datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 14, 30,
-                    tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc),
+                    tzinfo=datetime.UTC),
                 'GPL',
                 'https://qubes-os.org',
                 'Summary',
@@ -3544,7 +3543,7 @@ def test_174_search_multiquery_exact_success(self, mock_query):
                 'qubes-templates-itl',
                 1048576,
                 datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 14, 30,
-                    tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc),
+                    tzinfo=datetime.UTC),
                 'GPL',
                 'https://qubes-os.org',
                 'summary',
@@ -3558,7 +3557,7 @@ def test_174_search_multiquery_exact_success(self, mock_query):
                 'qubes-templates-itl',
                 1048576,
                 datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 14, 30,
-                    tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc),
+                    tzinfo=datetime.UTC),
                 'GPL',
                 'https://qubes-os.org',
                 'test-vm Summary',
@@ -3595,7 +3594,7 @@ def test_175_search_all_success(self, mock_query):
                 'qubes-templates-itl',
                 1048576,
                 datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 14, 30,
-                    tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc),
+                    tzinfo=datetime.UTC),
                 'GPL',
                 'https://qubes-os.org/keyword-url',
                 'summary',
@@ -3609,7 +3608,7 @@ def test_175_search_all_success(self, mock_query):
                 'qubes-templates-itl',
                 1048576,
                 datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 14, 30,
-                    tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc),
+                    tzinfo=datetime.UTC),
                 'GPL',
                 'https://qubes-os.org',
                 'test-vm Summary',
@@ -3623,7 +3622,7 @@ def test_175_search_all_success(self, mock_query):
                 'qubes-templates-itl',
                 1048576,
                 datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 14, 30,
-                    tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc),
+                    tzinfo=datetime.UTC),
                 'GPL',
                 'test-vm-exac2',
                 'test-vm Summary',
@@ -3637,7 +3636,7 @@ def test_175_search_all_success(self, mock_query):
                 'qubes-templates-itl',
                 1048576,
                 datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 14, 30,
-                    tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc),
+                    tzinfo=datetime.UTC),
                 'GPL',
                 'https://qubes-os.org',
                 'test-vm Summary',
@@ -3651,7 +3650,7 @@ def test_175_search_all_success(self, mock_query):
                 'qubes-templates-itl',
                 1048576,
                 datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 14, 30,
-                    tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc),
+                    tzinfo=datetime.UTC),
                 'GPL',
                 'https://qubes-os.org',
                 'Summary',
@@ -3693,7 +3692,7 @@ def test_176_search_wildcard_success(self, mock_query):
                 'qubes-templates-itl',
                 1048576,
                 datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 14, 30,
-                    tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc),
+                    tzinfo=datetime.UTC),
                 'GPL',
                 'https://qubes-os.org',
                 'Qubes template for fedora-31',
@@ -3707,7 +3706,7 @@ def test_176_search_wildcard_success(self, mock_query):
                 'qubes-templates-itl',
                 1048576,
                 datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 14, 30,
-                    tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc),
+                    tzinfo=datetime.UTC),
                 'GPL',
                 'https://qubes-os.org/test-vm',
                 'Qubes template for fedora-31',
@@ -3735,7 +3734,7 @@ def _mock_qrexec_download(self, args, app, spec, path,
                               key, dlsize=None, refresh=False):
         # pylint: disable=unused-argument
         self.assertFalse(os.path.exists(path),
-            '{} should not exist before'.format(path))
+            f'{path} should not exist before')
         # just create an empty file
         with open(path, 'wb') as f_template:
             f_template.truncate(dlsize)
@@ -4216,7 +4215,7 @@ def _mock_qrexec_download_short(self, args, app, spec, path,
                               key, dlsize=None, refresh=False):
         # pylint: disable=unused-argument
         self.assertFalse(os.path.exists(path),
-            '{} should not exist before'.format(path))
+            f'{path} should not exist before')
         # just create an empty file
         with open(path, 'wb') as f_pkg:
             f_pkg.truncate(dlsize // 2)
@@ -4292,7 +4291,7 @@ def test_200_reinstall_success(
         mock_call.side_effect = self.add_new_vm_side_effect
         mock_time = mock.Mock(wraps=datetime.datetime)
         mock_time.now.return_value = \
-            datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 15, 30, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
+            datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 15, 30, tzinfo=datetime.UTC)
         selector = qubesadmin.tools.qvm_template.VersionSelector.REINSTALL
         with mock.patch('qubesadmin.tools.qvm_template.LOCK_FILE', '/tmp/test.lock'), \
                 mock.patch('datetime.datetime', new=mock_time), \
@@ -4510,7 +4509,7 @@ def test_202_reinstall_local_success(
         mock_call.side_effect = self.add_new_vm_side_effect
         mock_time = mock.Mock(wraps=datetime.datetime)
         mock_time.now.return_value = \
-            datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 15, 30, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
+            datetime.datetime(2020, 9, 1, 15, 30, tzinfo=datetime.UTC)
         selector = qubesadmin.tools.qvm_template.VersionSelector.REINSTALL
         with mock.patch('qubesadmin.tools.qvm_template.LOCK_FILE', '/tmp/test.lock'), \
                 mock.patch('datetime.datetime', new=mock_time), \
@@ -5475,7 +5474,7 @@ def test_240_qubes_release(self, mock_exists):
             self.assertEqual(mock_exists.mock_calls, [
                 mock.call('/usr/share/qubes/marker-vm')
             ])
-            mock_open.assert_called_with('/etc/os-release', 'r',
+            mock_open.assert_called_with('/etc/os-release',
                                          encoding='ascii')
         self.assertAllCalled()
 
@@ -5500,7 +5499,7 @@ def test_241_qubes_release_quotes(self, mock_exists):
             self.assertEqual(mock_exists.mock_calls, [
                 mock.call('/usr/share/qubes/marker-vm')
             ])
-            mock_open.assert_called_with('/etc/os-release', 'r',
+            mock_open.assert_called_with('/etc/os-release',
                                          encoding='ascii')
         self.assertAllCalled()
 
@@ -5520,7 +5519,7 @@ def test_242_qubes_release_quotes(self, mock_exists):
             self.assertEqual(mock_exists.mock_calls, [
                 mock.call('/usr/share/qubes/marker-vm')
             ])
-            mock_open.assert_called_with('/usr/share/qubes/marker-vm', 'r',
+            mock_open.assert_called_with('/usr/share/qubes/marker-vm',
                                          encoding='ascii')
         self.assertAllCalled()
 
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_template_postprocess.py b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_template_postprocess.py
index 26cdf832..0826718e 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_template_postprocess.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_template_postprocess.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_unpause.py b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_unpause.py
index b09c89d3..c45d23b9 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_unpause.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_unpause.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_volume.py b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_volume.py
index 762dd1d4..077556dc 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_volume.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/tools/qvm_volume.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf-8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/utils.py b/qubesadmin/tests/utils.py
index 36f7434c..8c484976 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/utils.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/utils.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf-8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
@@ -90,10 +89,10 @@ def test_01_only_vm(self):
 
         self.assertSetEqual(
             set(result),
-            set([(vm, prop) for vm in self.vms for prop in self.vm_properties
+            {(vm, prop) for vm in self.vms for prop in self.vm_properties
                  if (not vm.startswith('template')
                      or not prop.startswith(
-                            'template')) and vm != 'template1']),
+                            'template')) and vm != 'template1'},
             "Incorrect VM properties listed.")
 
     def test_02_empty(self):
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/vm/__init__.py b/qubesadmin/tests/vm/__init__.py
index ba0a10ac..3c9c761c 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/vm/__init__.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/vm/__init__.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/vm/actions.py b/qubesadmin/tests/vm/actions.py
index 570bd87b..16f090ab 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/vm/actions.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/vm/actions.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf-8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/vm/dispvm.py b/qubesadmin/tests/vm/dispvm.py
index 02d8030a..4372487d 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/vm/dispvm.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/vm/dispvm.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf-8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/vm/properties.py b/qubesadmin/tests/vm/properties.py
index 126f2d6d..8e16388a 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/vm/properties.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/vm/properties.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf-8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tests/vm/storage.py b/qubesadmin/tests/vm/storage.py
index f25f2f78..af7dce87 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tests/vm/storage.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tests/vm/storage.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
@@ -29,7 +28,7 @@ def test_000_list_volumes(self):
             ('test-vm', 'admin.vm.volume.List', None, None)] = \
             b'0\x00root\nprivate\nvolatile\nmodules\n'
         self.assertEqual(set(self.vm.volumes.keys()),
-            set(['root', 'private', 'volatile', 'modules']))
+            {'root', 'private', 'volatile', 'modules'})
         self.assertAllCalled()
 
     def test_001_volume_get(self):
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tools/__init__.py b/qubesadmin/tools/__init__.py
index b2f7f17b..18e11206 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tools/__init__.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tools/__init__.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# encoding=utf-8
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, https://www.qubes-os.org/
 #
@@ -21,7 +20,6 @@
 '''Qubes' command line tools
 '''
 
-from __future__ import print_function
 
 import argparse
 import fnmatch
@@ -71,7 +69,7 @@ def __call__(self, parser, namespace, values, option_string=None):
         try:
             prop, value = values.split('=', 1)
         except ValueError:
-            parser.error('invalid property token: {!r}'.format(values))
+            parser.error(f'invalid property token: {values!r}')
 
         properties = getattr(namespace, self.dest)
         # copy it, to not modify _mutable_ self.default
@@ -95,9 +93,9 @@ def __init__(self,
             required=False,
             help=None):
         if help is None:
-            help = 'set {!r} property to a value'.format(dest)
+            help = f'set {dest!r} property to a value'
             if const is not None:
-                help += ' {!r}'.format(const)
+                help += f' {const!r}'
 
         if const is not None:
             nargs = 0
@@ -176,7 +174,7 @@ def parse_qubes_app(self, parser, namespace):
                     try:
                         namespace.domains += [app.domains[vm_name]]
                     except KeyError:
-                        parser.error('no such domain: {!r}'.format(vm_name))
+                        parser.error(f'no such domain: {vm_name!r}')
             else:
                 destinations = set()
                 for destination in getattr(namespace, self.dest):
@@ -191,7 +189,7 @@ def parse_qubes_app(self, parser, namespace):
                     try:
                         namespace.domains += [app.domains[vm_name]]
                     except KeyError:
-                        parser.error('no such domain: {!r}'.format(vm_name))
+                        parser.error(f'no such domain: {vm_name!r}')
 
 
 class RunningVmNameAction(VmNameAction):
@@ -263,7 +261,7 @@ def parse_qubes_app(self, parser, namespace):
                 else:
                     setattr(namespace, self.dest, volume[0])
             except KeyError:
-                parser.error_runtime('no pool {!r}'.format(pool_name))
+                parser.error_runtime(f'no pool {pool_name!r}')
         except ValueError:
             parser.error('expected a pool & volume id combination like foo:bar')
 
@@ -302,7 +300,7 @@ def parse_qubes_app(self, parser, namespace):
                     parser.error_runtime('vm {!r} has no volume {!r}'.format(
                         vm_name, vol_name))
             except KeyError:
-                parser.error_runtime('no vm {!r}'.format(vm_name))
+                parser.error_runtime(f'no vm {vm_name!r}')
         except ValueError:
             parser.error('expected a vm & volume combination like foo:bar')
 
@@ -448,7 +446,7 @@ def error_runtime(self, message, exit_code=1):
 
         :param str message: message to show
         '''
-        self.exit(exit_code, '{}: error: {}\n'.format(self.prog, message))
+        self.exit(exit_code, f'{self.prog}: error: {message}\n')
 
 
     @staticmethod
@@ -501,7 +499,7 @@ def __call__(self, parser, namespace, values, option_string=None):
             for pseudo_action in subparsers_action._choices_actions:
                 choice = pseudo_action.dest.split(' ', 1)[0]
                 subparser = subparsers_action.choices[choice]
-                print("\nCommand '{}':".format(choice))
+                print(f"\nCommand '{choice}':")
                 choice_help = subparser.format_usage()
                 choice_help = self._indent(2, choice_help)
                 print(choice_help)
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tools/dochelpers.py b/qubesadmin/tools/dochelpers.py
index d9d2ddde..3d2f38ce 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tools/dochelpers.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tools/dochelpers.py
@@ -54,16 +54,16 @@
 
 def make_rst_section(heading, char):
     """Format a section header in rst"""
-    return '{}\n{}\n\n'.format(heading, char[0] * len(heading))
+    return f'{heading}\n{char[0] * len(heading)}\n\n'
 
 
 def prepare_manpage(command):
     """Build a man page skeleton"""
     parser = qubesadmin.tools.get_parser_for_command(command)
     stream = io.StringIO()
-    stream.write('.. program:: {}\n\n'.format(command))
+    stream.write(f'.. program:: {command}\n\n')
     stream.write(make_rst_section(
-        ':program:`{}` -- {}'.format(command, parser.description), '='))
+        f':program:`{command}` -- {parser.description}', '='))
     stream.write(""".. warning::
 
    This page was autogenerated from command-line parser. It shouldn't be 1:1
@@ -81,7 +81,7 @@ def prepare_manpage(command):
     # replace METAVARS with *METAVARS*
     usage = re.sub(r'\b([A-Z]{2,})\b', r'*\1*', usage)
 
-    stream.write(':command:`{}` {}\n\n'.format(command, usage))
+    stream.write(f':command:`{command}` {usage}\n\n')
 
     stream.write(make_rst_section('Options', '-'))
 
@@ -94,7 +94,7 @@ def prepare_manpage(command):
                 sorted(action.option_strings)))
         else:
             stream.write(', '.join(sorted(action.option_strings)))
-        stream.write('\n\n   {}\n\n'.format(action.help))
+        stream.write(f'\n\n   {action.help}\n\n')
 
     stream.write(make_rst_section('Authors', '-'))
     stream.write("""\
@@ -134,7 +134,7 @@ def visit_desc_name(self, node):
             self.args.remove(arg)
         except KeyError:
             raise sphinx.errors.SphinxError(
-                'No such argument for {!r}: {!r}'.format(self.command, arg))
+                f'No such argument for {self.command!r}: {arg!r}')
 
     def check_undocumented_arguments(self, ignored_options=None):
         """ Call this to check if any undocumented arguments are left.
@@ -193,7 +193,7 @@ def visit_section(self, node):
                 del self.sub_commands[cmd]
             except KeyError:
                 raise sphinx.errors.SphinxError(
-                    'No such sub-command {!r}'.format(sub_cmd))
+                    f'No such sub-command {sub_cmd!r}')
 
     def visit_Text(self, node):
         """ If the visited text node starts with 'alias: ', all the provided
@@ -291,7 +291,7 @@ def check_man_args(app, doctree, docname):
     if os.path.basename(dirname) != 'manpages':
         return
 
-    msg = 'Checking arguments for {!r}'.format(command)
+    msg = f'Checking arguments for {command!r}'
     if log:
         log.info(msg)
     doctree.walk(ManpageCheckVisitor(app, command, doctree))
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tools/qubes_prefs.py b/qubesadmin/tools/qubes_prefs.py
index 2e354c34..f95d60ff 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tools/qubes_prefs.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tools/qubes_prefs.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# encoding=utf-8
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
@@ -20,7 +19,6 @@
 
 ''' Manipulate global properties.'''
 
-from __future__ import print_function
 
 import sys
 
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_backup.py b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_backup.py
index 29b5182f..ad060295 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_backup.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_backup.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
@@ -121,7 +120,7 @@ def print_progress(expected_profile, _subject, _event, backup_profile,
     '''Event handler for reporting backup progress'''
     if backup_profile != expected_profile:
         return
-    sys.stderr.write('\rMaking a backup... {:.02f}%'.format(float(progress)))
+    sys.stderr.write(f'\rMaking a backup... {float(progress):.02f}%')
 
 def main(args=None, app=None):
     '''Main function of qvm-backup tool'''
@@ -139,7 +138,7 @@ def main(args=None, app=None):
                 # don't care about collisions because only the user in dom0 can
                 # trigger this, and qrexec policy should not allow random VM
                 # to execute the same backup in the meantime
-                profile_name = 'backup-run-{}'.format(os.getpid())
+                profile_name = f'backup-run-{os.getpid()}'
             # first write the backup profile without passphrase, to display
             # summary
             profile_path = os.path.join(
@@ -178,7 +177,7 @@ def main(args=None, app=None):
             'dom0', 'admin.backup.Info', profile_name)
         print(backup_summary.decode())
     except QubesException as err:
-        print('\nBackup preparation error: {}'.format(err), file=sys.stderr)
+        print(f'\nBackup preparation error: {err}', file=sys.stderr)
         return 1
 
     if not args.yes:
@@ -220,7 +219,7 @@ def main(args=None, app=None):
         loop.run_until_complete(loop.run_in_executor(None,
             args.app.qubesd_call, 'dom0', 'admin.backup.Execute', profile_name))
     except QubesException as err:
-        print('\nBackup error: {}'.format(err), file=sys.stderr)
+        print(f'\nBackup error: {err}', file=sys.stderr)
         return 1
     finally:
         if have_events:
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_backup_restore.py b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_backup_restore.py
index a1506a46..50829a9c 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_backup_restore.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_backup_restore.py
@@ -233,7 +233,7 @@ def main(args=None, app=None):
         try:
             appvm = args.app.domains[args.appvm]
         except KeyError:
-            parser.error('no such domain: {!r}'.format(args.appvm))
+            parser.error(f'no such domain: {args.appvm!r}')
 
     if args.location_is_service and not args.appvm:
         parser.error('--location-is-service option requires -d')
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_create.py b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_create.py
index 6f36f18a..caacb18b 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_create.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_create.py
@@ -27,7 +27,6 @@
 # TODO list labels (maybe in qvm-prefs)
 # TODO features, devices, tags
 
-from __future__ import print_function
 
 import argparse
 import os
@@ -154,7 +153,7 @@ def main(args=None, app=None):
     try:
         args.app.get_vm_class(args.cls)
     except KeyError:
-        parser.error('no such domain class: {!r}'.format(args.cls))
+        parser.error(f'no such domain class: {args.cls!r}')
 
     try:
         if args.cls == 'StandaloneVM' and 'template' in args.properties:
@@ -174,7 +173,7 @@ def main(args=None, app=None):
                 pool=pool,
                 pools=pools)
     except qubesadmin.exc.QubesException as e:
-        args.app.log.error('Error creating VM: {!s}'.format(e))
+        args.app.log.error(f'Error creating VM: {e!s}')
         return 1
 
     retcode = 0
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_device.py b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_device.py
index eb9ffb62..de931039 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_device.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_device.py
@@ -1,5 +1,3 @@
-# encoding=utf-8
-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
@@ -90,7 +88,7 @@ class Line:
 
     # pylint: disable=too-few-public-methods
     def __init__(self, device: DeviceInfo, assignment=False):
-        self.ident = "{!s}:{!s}".format(device.backend_domain, device.port_id)
+        self.ident = f"{device.backend_domain!s}:{device.port_id!s}"
         self.description = device.description
         self.assignment = assignment
         self.frontends = []
@@ -209,7 +207,7 @@ def _frontend_desc(vm, assignment, virtual=False):
             vm,
             mode,
             ", ".join(
-                "{}={}".format(key, value)
+                f"{key}={value}"
                 for key, value in assignment.options.items()
             ),
         )
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_features.py b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_features.py
index 65e5344f..56012e1f 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_features.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_features.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# coding=utf-8
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, https://www.qubes-os.org/
 #
@@ -24,7 +23,6 @@
 
 '''qvm-features - Manage domain's features'''
 
-from __future__ import print_function
 
 import sys
 
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_firewall.py b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_firewall.py
index 979fd6be..253993ba 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_firewall.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_firewall.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# encoding=utf-8
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
@@ -50,7 +49,7 @@ def __call__(self, _parser, namespace, values, option_string=None):
         for opt in values:
             if opt[-1] == '=':
                 raise argparse.ArgumentError(
-                    None, 'invalid rule description: {}'.format(opt))
+                    None, f'invalid rule description: {opt}')
             opt_elements = opt.split('=')
             if len(opt_elements) == 2:
                 key, value = opt_elements
@@ -58,12 +57,12 @@ def __call__(self, _parser, namespace, values, option_string=None):
                 key, value = assumed_order[0], opt
             else:
                 raise argparse.ArgumentError(None,
-                    'invalid rule description: {}'.format(opt))
+                    f'invalid rule description: {opt}')
             if key in ['dst4', 'dst6']:
                 key = 'dsthost'
             if key not in allowed_opts:
                 raise argparse.ArgumentError(None,
-                    'Invalid rule element: {}'.format(opt))
+                    f'Invalid rule element: {opt}')
             if key == 'expire' and value.startswith('+'):
                 value = (datetime.datetime.now() +
                          datetime.timedelta(seconds=int(value[1:]))).\
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_kill.py b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_kill.py
index 88dd6d5a..d362aaf3 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_kill.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_kill.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# encoding=utf-8
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, https://www.qubes-os.org/
 #
@@ -43,7 +42,7 @@ def main(args=None, app=None):
             domain.kill()
         except qubesadmin.exc.QubesVMNotStartedError:
             pass
-        except (IOError, OSError, qubesadmin.exc.QubesException) as e:
+        except (OSError, qubesadmin.exc.QubesException) as e:
             exit_code = 1
             parser.print_error("Failed to kill '{}': {}".format(
                 domain.name, e))
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_ls.py b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_ls.py
index abfb5f52..2574caa6 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_ls.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_ls.py
@@ -26,7 +26,6 @@
 '''qvm-ls - List available domains'''
 
 
-from __future__ import print_function
 
 import argparse
 import collections.abc
@@ -327,7 +326,7 @@ def calc_used(vm, volume_name):
     if size == 0:
         return 0
     usage = calc_usage(vm, volume_name)
-    return '{}%'.format(usage * 100 // size)
+    return f'{usage * 100 // size}%'
 
 
 # todo maxmem
@@ -691,8 +690,8 @@ def get_parser():
         help='exclude qubes having specific tag(s)')
 
     for pwstate in DOMAIN_POWER_STATES:
-        parser_filter.add_argument('--{}'.format(pwstate), action='store_true',
-        help='show {} VMs'.format(pwstate))
+        parser_filter.add_argument(f'--{pwstate}', action='store_true',
+        help=f'show {pwstate} VMs')
 
     parser_filter.add_argument('--template-source', nargs='+',
         metavar='TEMPLATE', action='store',
@@ -876,9 +875,9 @@ def main(args=None, app=None):
             try:
                 key, value = feature.split('=', 1)
             except ValueError:
-                parser.error("Invalid argument: --features {}".format(feature))
+                parser.error(f"Invalid argument: --features {feature}")
             if not key:
-                parser.error("Invalid argument: --features {}".format(feature))
+                parser.error(f"Invalid argument: --features {feature}")
             if value == '':
                 value = None
             elif value in ['\'\'', '""']:
@@ -891,9 +890,9 @@ def main(args=None, app=None):
             try:
                 key, value = pref.split('=', 1)
             except ValueError:
-                parser.error("Invalid argument: --prefs {}".format(pref))
+                parser.error(f"Invalid argument: --prefs {pref}")
             if not key:
-                parser.error("Invalid argument: --prefs {}".format(pref))
+                parser.error(f"Invalid argument: --prefs {pref}")
             if value == '':
                 value = None
             elif value in ['\'\'', '""']:
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_notes.py b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_notes.py
index 70f7d8a1..3d2c97cf 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_notes.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_notes.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf-8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_pause.py b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_pause.py
index 7a4b777e..378cb982 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_pause.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_pause.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# encoding=utf-8
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, https://www.qubes-os.org/
 #
@@ -51,7 +50,7 @@ def main(args=None, app=None):
                 domain.suspend()
             else:
                 domain.pause()
-        except (IOError, OSError, qubesadmin.exc.QubesException) as e:
+        except (OSError, qubesadmin.exc.QubesException) as e:
             exit_code = 1
             parser.print_error(str(e))
 
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_pool.py b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_pool.py
index 971ce115..b2f1b016 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_pool.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_pool.py
@@ -20,7 +20,6 @@
 
 '''Manages Qubes pools and their options'''
 
-from __future__ import print_function
 
 import argparse
 import sys
@@ -79,7 +78,7 @@ def remove_pools(args):
             errors.append('No such pool %s\n' % pool_name)
         except qubesadmin.exc.QubesException as e:
             errors.append(
-                'Failed to remove pool %s: %s\n' % (pool_name, str(e)))
+                f'Failed to remove pool {pool_name}: {str(e)}\n')
     if errors:
         raise qubesadmin.exc.QubesException('\n'.join(errors))
 
@@ -92,12 +91,12 @@ def set_pool(args):
     for opt, value in options:
         if not hasattr(type(pool), opt):
             errors.append(
-                'Setting option %s is not supported for pool %s\n' % (
+                'Setting option {} is not supported for pool {}\n'.format(
                     opt, pool.name))
         try:
             setattr(pool, opt, value)
         except qubesadmin.exc.QubesException as e:
-            errors.append('Failed to set option %s for pool %s: %s\n' % (
+            errors.append('Failed to set option {} for pool {}: {}\n'.format(
                 opt, pool.name, str(e)))
     if errors:
         raise qubesadmin.exc.QubesException('\n'.join(errors))
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_pool_legacy.py b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_pool_legacy.py
index d3968989..4fadf387 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_pool_legacy.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_pool_legacy.py
@@ -20,7 +20,6 @@
 
 '''Manages Qubes pools and their options'''
 
-from __future__ import print_function
 
 import argparse
 import sys
@@ -179,14 +178,14 @@ def main(args=None, app=None):
             args.app.add_pool(name=args.name, driver=args.driver,
                 **args.options)
         except qubesadmin.exc.QubesException as e:
-            parser.error('failed to add pool %s: %s\n' % (args.name, str(e)))
+            parser.error(f'failed to add pool {args.name}: {str(e)}\n')
     elif args.command == 'remove':
         try:
             args.app.remove_pool(args.name)
         except KeyError:
             parser.print_error('no such pool %s\n' % args.name)
         except qubesadmin.exc.QubesException as e:
-            parser.error('failed to remove pool %s: %s\n' % (args.name, str(e)))
+            parser.error(f'failed to remove pool {args.name}: {str(e)}\n')
     elif args.command == 'info':
         for pool in args.pools:
             pool_info(pool)
@@ -199,7 +198,7 @@ def main(args=None, app=None):
             try:
                 setattr(pool, opt, value)
             except qubesadmin.exc.QubesException as e:
-                parser.error('failed to set pool %s option %s: %s\n' % (
+                parser.error('failed to set pool {} option {}: {}\n'.format(
                     pool.name, opt, str(e)))
     return 0
 
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_prefs.py b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_prefs.py
index dcd0c972..5c87ddbd 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_prefs.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_prefs.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# encoding=utf-8
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
@@ -20,7 +19,6 @@
 
 ''' Manipulate VM properties.'''
 
-from __future__ import print_function
 
 import sys
 import textwrap
@@ -126,7 +124,7 @@ def process_actions(parser, args, target):
         try:
             setattr(target, args.property, args.value)
         except qubesadmin.exc.QubesNoSuchPropertyError:
-            parser.error('no such property: {!r}'.format(args.property))
+            parser.error(f'no such property: {args.property!r}')
         except qubesadmin.exc.QubesException as e:
             parser.error_runtime(e)
         return 0
@@ -135,7 +133,7 @@ def process_actions(parser, args, target):
         try:
             delattr(target, args.property)
         except qubesadmin.exc.QubesNoSuchPropertyError:
-            parser.error('no such property: {!r}'.format(args.property))
+            parser.error(f'no such property: {args.property!r}')
         except qubesadmin.exc.QubesException as e:
             parser.error_runtime(e)
         return 0
@@ -148,7 +146,7 @@ def process_actions(parser, args, target):
             if value is not None:
                 print(str(value))
     except qubesadmin.exc.QubesNoSuchPropertyError:
-        parser.error('no such property: {!r}'.format(args.property))
+        parser.error(f'no such property: {args.property!r}')
     except qubesadmin.exc.QubesException as e:
         parser.error_runtime(e)
 
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_remove.py b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_remove.py
index 8326bf63..8f5c473b 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_remove.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_remove.py
@@ -96,12 +96,12 @@ def main(args=None, app=None):  # pylint: disable=missing-docstring
                     for holder, prop in dependencies:
                         if holder:
                             print(
-                                " - {} for {}".format(prop, holder.name),
+                                f" - {prop} for {holder.name}",
                                 file=sys.stderr,
                             )
                         else:
                             print(
-                                " - global property {}".format(prop),
+                                f" - global property {prop}",
                                 file=sys.stderr,
                             )
                 # Display the original message as well
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_run.py b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_run.py
index cc69f664..21d7dc5c 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_run.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_run.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf-8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
@@ -218,7 +217,7 @@ def print_no_color(msg, file, color):
     Namely reset to base color first, print a message, then restore color.
     """
     if color:
-        print("\033[0m{}\033[0;{}m".format(msg, color), file=file)
+        print(f"\033[0m{msg}\033[0;{color}m", file=file)
     else:
         print(msg, file=file)
 
@@ -287,7 +286,7 @@ def run_command_single(args, vm):
             elif args.user == "root":
                 service = "qubes.VMRootShell"
                 args.user = None
-            shell_cmd = " ".join(shlex.quote(arg) for arg in all_args)
+            shell_cmd = shlex.join(all_args)
     else:
         service = "qubes.VMShell"
         if args.gui and args.dispvm:
@@ -394,10 +393,10 @@ def main(args=None, app=None):
             assert len(domains) == 1
             args.gui = has_gui(domains[0])
     if args.color_output:
-        sys.stdout.write("\033[0;{}m".format(args.color_output))
+        sys.stdout.write(f"\033[0;{args.color_output}m")
         sys.stdout.flush()
     if args.color_stderr:
-        sys.stderr.write("\033[0;{}m".format(args.color_stderr))
+        sys.stderr.write(f"\033[0;{args.color_stderr}m")
         sys.stderr.flush()
     copy_proc = None
     try:
@@ -406,7 +405,7 @@ def main(args=None, app=None):
             if not args.autostart and not vm.is_running():
                 if verbose > 0:
                     print_no_color(
-                        "Qube '{}' not started".format(vm.name),
+                        f"Qube '{vm.name}' not started",
                         file=sys.stderr,
                         color=args.color_stderr,
                     )
@@ -416,7 +415,7 @@ def main(args=None, app=None):
                 if not args.autostart:
                     if verbose > 0:
                         print_no_color(
-                            "Qube '{}' is paused".format(vm.name),
+                            f"Qube '{vm.name}' is paused",
                             file=sys.stderr,
                             color=args.color_stderr,
                         )
@@ -427,7 +426,7 @@ def main(args=None, app=None):
                 except qubesadmin.exc.QubesException:
                     if verbose > 0:
                         print_no_color(
-                            "Qube '{}' cannot be unpaused".format(vm.name),
+                            f"Qube '{vm.name}' cannot be unpaused",
                             file=sys.stderr,
                             color=args.color_stderr,
                         )
@@ -436,7 +435,7 @@ def main(args=None, app=None):
             try:
                 if verbose > 0:
                     print_no_color(
-                        "Running '{}' on {}".format(args.cmd, vm.name),
+                        f"Running '{args.cmd}' on {vm.name}",
                         file=sys.stderr,
                         color=args.color_stderr,
                     )
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_service.py b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_service.py
index b2f5d34d..2826884c 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_service.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_service.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# coding=utf-8
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, https://www.qubes-os.org/
 #
@@ -24,7 +23,6 @@
 
 '''qvm-service - Manage domain's services'''
 
-from __future__ import print_function
 
 import argparse
 import sys
@@ -80,7 +78,7 @@ def parse_bool(value):
         if lcvalue in ('1', 'yes', 'true', 'on'):
             return True
         raise qubesadmin.exc.QubesValueError(
-            'Invalid literal for boolean value: {!r}'.format(value))
+            f'Invalid literal for boolean value: {value!r}')
 
     return bool(value)
 
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_shutdown.py b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_shutdown.py
index 765b1039..14599b99 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_shutdown.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_shutdown.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# encoding=utf-8
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
@@ -22,7 +21,6 @@
 
 ''' Shutdown a qube '''
 
-from __future__ import print_function
 
 import sys
 import time
@@ -91,7 +89,7 @@ def main(args=None, app=None):  # pylint: disable=missing-docstring
                     pass
                 except qubesadmin.exc.QubesException as e:
                     if not args.wait:
-                        vm.log.error('Shutdown error: {}'.format(e))
+                        vm.log.error(f'Shutdown error: {e}')
                     else:
                         remaining_domains.add(vm)
         if not args.wait:
@@ -112,7 +110,7 @@ def main(args=None, app=None):  # pylint: disable=missing-docstring
                     qubesadmin.events.utils.wait_for_domain_shutdown(
                         this_round_domains),
                     args.timeout))
-            except asyncio.TimeoutError:
+            except TimeoutError:
                 if not args.dry_run:
                     for vm in this_round_domains:
                         try:
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_start.py b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_start.py
index 1158e963..3ab19376 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_start.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_start.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
@@ -181,7 +180,7 @@ def main(args=None, app=None):
                 continue
             exit_code = 1
             parser.print_error(
-                    'domain {} is already running'.format(domain.name))
+                    f'domain {domain.name} is already running')
             return exit_code
         drive_assignment = None
         try:
@@ -198,8 +197,7 @@ def main(args=None, app=None):
             if drive_assignment:
                 # don't reconnect this device after VM reboot
                 domain.devices['block'].unassign(drive_assignment)
-        except (IOError, OSError, qubesadmin.exc.QubesException,
-                ValueError) as e:
+        except (OSError, qubesadmin.exc.QubesException, ValueError) as e:
             if drive_assignment:
                 try:
                     domain.devices['block'].detach(drive_assignment)
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_start_daemon.py b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_start_daemon.py
index a6ff78df..330ce49c 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_start_daemon.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_start_daemon.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf-8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
@@ -287,7 +286,7 @@ def serialize_gui_daemon_options(options):
                     )
                 continue
 
-            lines.append("  {} = {};".format(name, serialized))
+            lines.append(f"  {name} = {serialized};")
     lines.append("}")
     lines.append("")
     return "\n".join(lines)
@@ -310,7 +309,7 @@ def escape_config_string(value):
 
     assert not NON_ASCII_RE.match(
         value
-    ), "expected an ASCII string: {!r}".format(value)
+    ), f"expected an ASCII string: {value!r}"
 
     value = (
         value.replace("\\", "\\\\")
@@ -321,7 +320,7 @@ def escape_config_string(value):
         .replace("\t", r"\t")
     )
     value = UNPRINTABLE_CHARACTER_RE.sub(
-        lambda m: r"\x{:02x}".format(ord(m.group(0))), value
+        lambda m: fr"\x{ord(m.group(0)):02x}", value
     )
     return '"' + value + '"'
 
@@ -635,7 +634,7 @@ def kde_guid_args(vm):
                 session_owner = line.split(b":")[2].decode()
         if session_owner is not None:
             data_dir = os.path.expanduser(
-                "~{}/.local/share".format(session_owner)
+                f"~{session_owner}/.local/share"
             )
         else:
             # fallback to current user
@@ -692,17 +691,17 @@ def write_guid_config(config_path, config):
     @staticmethod
     def guid_pidfile(xid):
         """Helper function to construct a GUI pidfile path"""
-        return "/var/run/qubes/guid-running.{}".format(xid)
+        return f"/var/run/qubes/guid-running.{xid}"
 
     @staticmethod
     def guid_config_file(xid):
         """Helper function to construct a GUI configuration file path"""
-        return "/var/run/qubes/guid-conf.{}".format(xid)
+        return f"/var/run/qubes/guid-conf.{xid}"
 
     @staticmethod
     def pacat_pidfile(xid):
         """Helper function to construct an AUDIO pidfile path"""
-        return "/var/run/qubes/pacat.{}".format(xid)
+        return f"/var/run/qubes/pacat.{xid}"
 
     @staticmethod
     def pacat_domid(vm):
@@ -736,7 +735,7 @@ async def start_gui_for_vm(self, vm, monitor_layout=None):
             if not vm.debug and os.path.exists(stubdom_guid_pidfile):
                 # Terminate stubdom guid once "real" gui agent connects
                 with open(
-                    stubdom_guid_pidfile, "r", encoding="ascii"
+                    stubdom_guid_pidfile, encoding="ascii"
                 ) as pidfile:
                     stubdom_guid_pid = pidfile.read().strip()
                 guid_cmd += ["-K", stubdom_guid_pid]
@@ -811,7 +810,7 @@ async def start_gui(self, vm, force_stubdom=False, monitor_layout=None):
             return
         guivm = getattr(vm, "guivm", None)
         if guivm != vm.app.local_name:
-            vm.log.info("GUI connected to {}. Skipping.".format(guivm))
+            vm.log.info(f"GUI connected to {guivm}. Skipping.")
             return
 
         if vm.virt_mode == "hvm":
@@ -834,7 +833,7 @@ async def start_audio(self, vm):
             return
         audiovm = getattr(vm, "audiovm", None)
         if audiovm != vm.app.local_name:
-            vm.log.info("AUDIO connected to {}. Skipping.".format(audiovm))
+            vm.log.info(f"AUDIO connected to {audiovm}. Skipping.")
             return
 
         if not vm.features.check_with_template("audio", True):
@@ -1178,7 +1177,7 @@ def main():
             loop.close()
     elif args.notify_monitor_layout:
         try:
-            with open(pidfile_path, "r", encoding="ascii") as pidfile:
+            with open(pidfile_path, encoding="ascii") as pidfile:
                 pid = int(pidfile.read().strip())
             os.kill(pid, signal.SIGHUP)
         except (FileNotFoundError, ValueError) as e:
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_tags.py b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_tags.py
index 799105a7..4f770946 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_tags.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_tags.py
@@ -21,7 +21,6 @@
 
 '''qvm-tags - Manage domain's tags'''
 
-from __future__ import print_function
 
 import sys
 
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_template.py b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_template.py
index 4503b17c..b20e094e 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_template.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_template.py
@@ -63,7 +63,7 @@
 WRAPPER_PAYLOAD_BEGIN = "###!Q!BEGIN-QUBES-WRAPPER!Q!###"
 WRAPPER_PAYLOAD_END = "###!Q!END-QUBES-WRAPPER!Q!###"
 
-UPDATEVM = str('global UpdateVM')
+UPDATEVM = 'global UpdateVM'
 
 
 class AlreadyRunning(Exception):
@@ -77,14 +77,14 @@ class SignatureVerificationError(Exception):
 def qubes_release() -> str:
     """Return the Qubes release."""
     if os.path.exists('/usr/share/qubes/marker-vm'):
-        with open('/usr/share/qubes/marker-vm', 'r', encoding='ascii') as fd:
+        with open('/usr/share/qubes/marker-vm', encoding='ascii') as fd:
             # Get the first non-comment line
             release = [l.strip() for l in fd.readlines()
                        if l.strip() and not l.startswith('#')]
             # sanity check
             if release and release[0] and release[0][0].isdigit():
                 return release[0]
-    with open('/etc/os-release', 'r', encoding='ascii') as fd:
+    with open('/etc/os-release', encoding='ascii') as fd:
         release = None
         distro_id = None
         for line in fd:
@@ -327,7 +327,7 @@ def evr(self):
 
 class DlEntry(typing.NamedTuple):
     """Information about a template to be downloaded."""
-    evr: typing.Tuple[str, str, str]
+    evr: tuple[str, str, str]
     reponame: str
     dlsize: int
 
@@ -335,14 +335,14 @@ class DlEntry(typing.NamedTuple):
 # pylint: enable=too-few-public-methods,inherit-non-class
 
 
-def build_version_str(evr: typing.Tuple[str, str, str]) -> str:
+def build_version_str(evr: tuple[str, str, str]) -> str:
     """Return version string described by ``evr``, which is in (epoch, version,
     release) format."""
     return '%s:%s-%s' % evr
 
 
 def is_match_spec(name: str, epoch: str, version: str, release: str, spec: str
-                  ) -> typing.Tuple[bool, float]:
+                  ) -> tuple[bool, float]:
     """Check whether (name, epoch, version, release) matches the spec string.
 
     For the algorithm, refer to section "NEVRA Matching" in the DNF
@@ -393,7 +393,7 @@ def query_local(vm: qubesadmin.vm.QubesVM) -> Template:
         vm.features['template-description'].replace('|', '\n'))
 
 
-def query_local_evr(vm: qubesadmin.vm.QubesVM) -> typing.Tuple[str, str, str]:
+def query_local_evr(vm: qubesadmin.vm.QubesVM) -> tuple[str, str, str]:
     """Return the (epoch, version, release) of ``vm``.
 
     Requires the VM to be managed by qvm-template.
@@ -421,7 +421,7 @@ def get_managed_template_vm(app: qubesadmin.app.QubesBase, name: str
     return vm
 
 
-def confirm_action(msg: str, affected: typing.List[str]) -> None:
+def confirm_action(msg: str, affected: list[str]) -> None:
     """Confirm user action."""
     print(msg)
     for name in affected:
@@ -439,7 +439,7 @@ def qrexec_popen(
         args: argparse.Namespace,
         app: qubesadmin.app.QubesBase,
         service: str,
-        stdout: typing.Union[int, typing.IO] = subprocess.PIPE,
+        stdout: int | typing.IO = subprocess.PIPE,
         filter_esc: bool = True) -> subprocess.Popen:
     """Return ``Popen`` object that communicates with the given qrexec call in
     ``args.updatevm``.
@@ -557,7 +557,7 @@ def check_newline(string, name):
 
     repo_config = ""
     for path in args.repo_files:
-        with open(path, 'r', encoding='utf-8') as fd:
+        with open(path, encoding='utf-8') as fd:
             repo_config += fd.read() + '\n'
     payload += repo_config
 
@@ -569,7 +569,7 @@ def qrexec_repoquery(
         args: argparse.Namespace,
         app: qubesadmin.app.QubesBase,
         spec: str = '*',
-        refresh: bool = False) -> typing.List[Template]:
+        refresh: bool = False) -> list[Template]:
     """Query template information from repositories.
 
     :param args: Arguments received by the application. Specifically,
@@ -639,7 +639,7 @@ def qrexec_repoquery(
             elif buildtime.isnumeric():
                 # DNF5 provides seconds since epoch
                 buildtime = datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(int(buildtime),
-                    tz=datetime.timezone.utc)
+                    tz=datetime.UTC)
             else:
                 raise ValueError
             # XXX: Perhaps whitelist licenses directly?
@@ -665,7 +665,7 @@ def qrexec_download(
         spec: str,
         path: str,
         key: str,
-        dlsize: typing.Optional[int] = None,
+        dlsize: int | None = None,
         refresh: bool = False) -> None:
     """Download a template from repositories.
 
@@ -726,8 +726,8 @@ def qrexec_download(
                 raise ConnectionError("rpmcanon failed")
 
 
-def get_keys_for_repos(repo_files: typing.List[str],
-                       releasever: str) -> typing.Dict[str, str]:
+def get_keys_for_repos(repo_files: list[str],
+                       releasever: str) -> dict[str, str]:
     """List gpg keys
 
     Returns a dict reponame -> key path
@@ -749,7 +749,7 @@ def get_keys_for_repos(repo_files: typing.List[str],
 
 
 def verify_rpm(path: str, key: str, *, nogpgcheck: bool = False,
-               template_name: typing.Optional[str] = None) -> rpm.hdr:
+               template_name: str | None = None) -> rpm.hdr:
     """Verify the digest and signature of a RPM package and return the package
     header.
 
@@ -851,7 +851,7 @@ def filter_version(
         version_selector: VersionSelector = VersionSelector.LATEST):
     """Select only one version for given template name"""
     # We only select one package for each distinct package name
-    results: typing.Dict[str, Template] = {}
+    results: dict[str, Template] = {}
 
     for entry in query_res:
         evr = (entry.epoch, entry.version, entry.release)
@@ -893,7 +893,7 @@ def get_dl_list(
         args: argparse.Namespace,
         app: qubesadmin.app.QubesBase,
         version_selector: VersionSelector = VersionSelector.LATEST
-) -> typing.Dict[str, DlEntry]:
+) -> dict[str, DlEntry]:
     """Return list of templates that needs to be downloaded.
 
     :param args: Arguments received by the application.
@@ -904,7 +904,7 @@ def get_dl_list(
     :return: Dictionary that maps to ``DlEntry`` the names of templates that
         needs to be downloaded
     """
-    full_candid: typing.Dict[str, DlEntry] = {}
+    full_candid: dict[str, DlEntry] = {}
     for template in args.templates:
         # Skip local RPMs
         if template.endswith('.rpm'):
@@ -944,10 +944,10 @@ def get_dl_list(
 def download(
         args: argparse.Namespace,
         app: qubesadmin.app.QubesBase,
-        path_override: typing.Optional[str] = None,
-        dl_list: typing.Optional[typing.Dict[str, DlEntry]] = None,
+        path_override: str | None = None,
+        dl_list: dict[str, DlEntry] | None = None,
         version_selector: VersionSelector = VersionSelector.LATEST) \
-        -> typing.Dict[str, rpm.hdr]:
+        -> dict[str, rpm.hdr]:
     """Command that downloads template packages.
 
     :param args: Arguments received by the application.
@@ -1214,11 +1214,11 @@ def verify(rpmfile, reponame, package_hdr=None):
             tpl.features['template-buildtime'] = \
                 datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(
                         int(package_hdr[rpm.RPMTAG_BUILDTIME]),
-                        tz=datetime.timezone.utc) \
+                        tz=datetime.UTC) \
                     .strftime(DATE_FMT)
             tpl.features['template-installtime'] = \
                 datetime.datetime.now(
-                    tz=datetime.timezone.utc).strftime(DATE_FMT)
+                    tz=datetime.UTC).strftime(DATE_FMT)
             tpl.features['template-license'] = \
                 package_hdr[rpm.RPMTAG_LICENSE]
             tpl.features['template-url'] = \
@@ -1344,7 +1344,7 @@ def check_append(name, evr):
 
     if args.all or args.available or args.extras or args.upgrades:
         if args.templates:
-            query_res_set: typing.Set[Template] = set()
+            query_res_set: set[Template] = set()
             for spec in args.templates:
                 query_res_set |= set(qrexec_repoquery(
                     args, app, PACKAGE_NAME_PREFIX + spec))
@@ -1452,7 +1452,7 @@ def compare(lhs, rhs):
         (WEIGHT_URL, 'URL')]
 
     search_res_by_idx: \
-        typing.Dict[int, typing.List[typing.Tuple[int, str, bool]]] = \
+        dict[int, list[tuple[int, str, bool]]] = \
         collections.defaultdict(list)
     for keyword in args.templates:
         for idx, entry in enumerate(query_res):
@@ -1472,7 +1472,7 @@ def compare(lhs, rhs):
         keywords = set(args.templates)
         idxs = list(search_res_by_idx.keys())
         for idx in idxs:
-            if keywords != set(x[1] for x in search_res_by_idx[idx]):
+            if keywords != {x[1] for x in search_res_by_idx[idx]}:
                 del search_res_by_idx[idx]
 
     def key_func(x):
@@ -1486,13 +1486,13 @@ def key_func(x):
 
     def gen_header(needles):
         fields = []
-        weight_types = set(x[0] for x in needles)
+        weight_types = {x[0] for x in needles}
         for weight, field in WEIGHT_TO_FIELD:
             if weight in weight_types:
                 fields.append(field)
         exact = all(x[-1] for x in needles)
         match = 'Exactly Matched' if exact else 'Matched'
-        keywords = sorted(list(set(x[1] for x in needles)))
+        keywords = sorted(list({x[1] for x in needles}))
         return ' & '.join(fields) + ' ' + match + ': ' + ', '.join(keywords)
 
     last_header = ''
@@ -1640,7 +1640,7 @@ def repolist(args: argparse.Namespace, app: qubesadmin.app.QubesBase) -> None:
         # Filter (name, operation) from args.repos
         repoid = []
         enable_disable_repos = []
-        repos: typing.List[dnf.repo.Repo] = []
+        repos: list[dnf.repo.Repo] = []
         if args.repos:
             for repo in args.repos:
                 operation, name = repo
@@ -1712,11 +1712,11 @@ def migrate_from_rpmdb(app):
             vm.features['template-reponame'] = '@commandline'
             vm.features['template-buildtime'] = \
                 datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(
-                    pkg[rpm.RPMTAG_BUILDTIME], tz=datetime.timezone.utc).\
+                    pkg[rpm.RPMTAG_BUILDTIME], tz=datetime.UTC).\
                 strftime(DATE_FMT)
             vm.features['template-installtime'] = \
                 datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(
-                    pkg[rpm.RPMTAG_INSTALLTIME], tz=datetime.timezone.utc).\
+                    pkg[rpm.RPMTAG_INSTALLTIME], tz=datetime.UTC).\
                 strftime(DATE_FMT)
             vm.features['template-license'] = pkg[rpm.RPMTAG_LICENSE]
             vm.features['template-url'] = pkg[rpm.RPMTAG_URL]
@@ -1725,7 +1725,7 @@ def migrate_from_rpmdb(app):
                 pkg[rpm.RPMTAG_DESCRIPTION].replace('\n', '|')
             vm.installed_by_rpm = False
         except Exception as e:  # pylint: disable=broad-except
-            print('Failed to set template {} metadata: {}'.format(vm.name, e))
+            print(f'Failed to set template {vm.name} metadata: {e}')
             continue
         pkgs_to_remove.append(pkg)
     subprocess.check_call(
@@ -1733,8 +1733,8 @@ def migrate_from_rpmdb(app):
         [p[rpm.RPMTAG_NAME] for p in pkgs_to_remove])
 
 
-def main(args: typing.Optional[typing.Sequence[str]] = None,
-         app: typing.Optional[qubesadmin.app.QubesBase] = None) -> int:
+def main(args: typing.Sequence[str] | None = None,
+         app: qubesadmin.app.QubesBase | None = None) -> int:
     """Main routine of **qvm-template**.
 
     :param args: Override arguments received by the application. Optional
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_template_postprocess.py b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_template_postprocess.py
index 52ada236..03d5aba0 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_template_postprocess.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_template_postprocess.py
@@ -183,7 +183,7 @@ def import_appmenus(vm, source_dir, skip_generate=True):
     # name according to the FreeDesktop spec
     source_dir = pathlib.Path(source_dir)
     try:
-        with open(source_dir / 'vm-whitelisted-appmenus.list', 'r',
+        with open(source_dir / 'vm-whitelisted-appmenus.list',
                   encoding='ascii') as fd:
             vm.features['default-menu-items'] = \
                 ' '.join([x.rstrip() for x in fd])
@@ -191,14 +191,14 @@ def import_appmenus(vm, source_dir, skip_generate=True):
         vm.log.warning('Cannot set default-menu-items, %s not found',
                        e.filename)
     try:
-        with open(source_dir / 'whitelisted-appmenus.list', 'r',
+        with open(source_dir / 'whitelisted-appmenus.list',
                   encoding='ascii') as fd:
             vm.features['menu-items'] = ' '.join([x.rstrip() for x in fd])
     except FileNotFoundError as e:
         vm.log.warning('Cannot set menu-items, %s not found',
                        e.filename)
     try:
-        with open(source_dir / 'netvm-whitelisted-appmenus.list', 'r',
+        with open(source_dir / 'netvm-whitelisted-appmenus.list',
                   encoding='ascii') as fd:
             vm.features['netvm-menu-items'] = ' '.join([x.rstrip() for x in fd])
     except FileNotFoundError as e:
@@ -222,7 +222,7 @@ def import_appmenus(vm, source_dir, skip_generate=True):
 
 def parse_template_config(path):
     '''Parse template.conf from template package. (KEY=VALUE format)'''
-    with open(path, 'r', encoding='ascii') as fd:
+    with open(path, encoding='ascii') as fd:
         return dict(line.rstrip('\n').split('=', 1) for line in fd)
 
 async def call_postinstall_service(vm):
@@ -251,7 +251,7 @@ async def call_postinstall_service(vm):
                 await asyncio.wait_for(
                     qubesadmin.events.utils.wait_for_domain_shutdown([vm]),
                     qubesadmin.config.defaults['shutdown_timeout'])
-            except asyncio.TimeoutError:
+            except TimeoutError:
                 try:
                     vm.kill()
                 except qubesadmin.exc.QubesVMNotStartedError:
@@ -416,7 +416,7 @@ def pre_remove(args):
     for appvm in tpl.appvms:
         dependant_vms = True
         app.log.error(
-            'ERROR! Qube "{}" uses this template'.format(appvm.name))
+            f'ERROR! Qube "{appvm.name}" uses this template')
     if dependant_vms:
         app.log.warning(
                 'WARNING! Do not use dnf to uninstall templates!')
@@ -437,7 +437,7 @@ def is_chroot():
         return (
             stat_root.st_dev != stat_init_root.st_dev or
             stat_root.st_ino != stat_init_root.st_ino)
-    except IOError:
+    except OSError:
         return False
 
 
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_unpause.py b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_unpause.py
index fca9eceb..f7c50d2b 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_unpause.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_unpause.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# encoding=utf-8
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, https://www.qubes-os.org/
 #
@@ -51,7 +50,7 @@ def main(args=None, app=None):
                 domain.resume()
             else:
                 domain.unpause()
-        except (IOError, OSError, qubesadmin.exc.QubesException) as e:
+        except (OSError, qubesadmin.exc.QubesException) as e:
             exit_code = 1
             parser.print_error(str(e))
 
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_volume.py b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_volume.py
index 21072b81..d872998f 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_volume.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tools/qvm_volume.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# encoding=utf-8
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
@@ -22,7 +21,6 @@
 
 """Qubes volume management"""
 
-from __future__ import print_function
 
 import argparse
 import os
@@ -86,7 +84,7 @@ def __lt__(self, other):
         return (self.pool, self.vid) < (other.pool, other.vid)
 
     def __str__(self):
-        return "{!s}:{!s}".format(self.pool, self.vid)
+        return f"{self.pool!s}:{self.vid!s}"
 
 
 def info_volume(args):
@@ -109,7 +107,7 @@ def info_volume(args):
             print(value)
         else:
             raise qubesadmin.exc.StoragePoolException(
-                'No such property: {}'.format(args.property))
+                f'No such property: {args.property}')
     else:
         info = collections.OrderedDict()
         for item in info_items:
@@ -136,7 +134,7 @@ def config_volume(args):
     volume = args.volume
     if args.property not in ('rw', 'revisions_to_keep', 'ephemeral'):
         raise qubesadmin.exc.QubesNoSuchPropertyError(
-            'Invalid property: {}'.format(args.property))
+            f'Invalid property: {args.property}')
     setattr(volume, args.property, args.value)
 
 
diff --git a/qubesadmin/tools/xcffibhelpers.py b/qubesadmin/tools/xcffibhelpers.py
index 9474f2b4..14864bea 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/tools/xcffibhelpers.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/tools/xcffibhelpers.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
diff --git a/qubesadmin/utils.py b/qubesadmin/utils.py
index 68b89af5..954aafba 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/utils.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/utils.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# encoding=utf-8
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, https://www.qubes-os.org/
 #
@@ -51,7 +50,7 @@ def parse_size(size):
             size = size[:-len(unit)].strip()
             return int(size) * multiplier
 
-    raise qubesadmin.exc.QubesException("Invalid size: {0}.".format(size))
+    raise qubesadmin.exc.QubesException(f"Invalid size: {size}.")
 
 
 def mbytes_to_kmg(size):
@@ -176,7 +175,7 @@ def encode_for_vmexec(args):
     def encode(part):
         if part.group(0) == b'-':
             return b'--'
-        return '-{:02X}'.format(ord(part.group(0))).encode('ascii')
+        return f'-{ord(part.group(0)):02X}'.encode('ascii')
 
     parts = []
     for arg in args:
diff --git a/qubesadmin/vm/__init__.py b/qubesadmin/vm/__init__.py
index e5869996..2dea408a 100644
--- a/qubesadmin/vm/__init__.py
+++ b/qubesadmin/vm/__init__.py
@@ -1,4 +1,3 @@
-# -*- encoding: utf-8 -*-
 #
 # The Qubes OS Project, http://www.qubes-os.org
 #
@@ -392,7 +391,7 @@ def run_with_args(self, *args, **kwargs):
                 e.cmd = str(args)
                 raise e
 
-        return self.run(" ".join(shlex.quote(arg) for arg in args), **kwargs)
+        return self.run(shlex.join(args), **kwargs)
 
     @property
     def appvms(self):