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The History of Rome: Books XXI-XXX: The War With Hannibal, by Livy

Hannibal's military campaigns are a central theme of the text, illustrating his notable impact and the way his story has been shared over time. Juvenal, an ancient Roman poet, reflects mixed feelings about Hannibal, showing both admiration and criticism. Hannibal's historical presence was so impactful that it became a cultural reference in various forms, much like Napoleon's influence in the 19th century. The Roman historian Livy dedicated ten books to the Second Punic War, which have largely survived and detail the conflict's key events. Livy is known for his patriotic writing and had a close relationship with Emperor Augustus, which influenced his work. Livy's historical accounts inspired many later European scholars and writers, demonstrating his lasting influence on Western literature and thought. The historical accounts by Livy have been criticized for their accuracy due to the reliance on secondary sources and the difficulty of confirming their authenticity. Despite criticisms, Livy's work remains significant, and his accounts of the Punic Wars continue to inspire modern readers and scholars. 1 / 129 Livy's historical approach is criticized for its lack of scientific method in evaluating sources, leading to confusion, especially in the chronology of Spanish campaigns. Livy uses an annalistic structure in his history writing, which can be disorienting, similar to a serial novel that requires readers to constantly recall past events. There is an omission in Livy's annual records regarding the lapse of certain political appointments post-Cannae, indicating a lack of attention to constitutional changes during the war. Livy's military descriptions are not clear and cater to a general audience rather than specialists, with some errors in geography and battles. Despite limited travel experience and political office, Livy aims to present Rome's history as a moral lesson, celebrating its past virtues and lamenting its contemporary decline. The historian showcases a romantic patriotism, with an idealization of Roman-Italian unity and a lack of critical perspective on Roman leadership and allies. Livy's romanticism as a historian colors his narrative, leading to biases and justifications for certain historical figures and their actions. 2 / 129 Livy portrays the war with Carthage as a clash of personalities, with Roman heroes and Hannibal as the central figures. Hannibal is depicted as a romantic hero who dominates the narrative, showcasing his magnetism and strategic prowess against various Roman commanders. Scipio is admired for his destiny to lead, personal charm, and his strategic abilities, despite Livy's criticism of Scipio's self-portrayal as divinely inspired. Livy's approach to history is more literary than scientific, prioritizing character and plot over historical precision, much like a historical novelist. The work suggests that lessons from history can be practical examples for contemporary life, a theme that resonates less in modern historical writing. Livy's vivid narrative allows readers to relive historical events and emotions from the Roman perspective, capturing the spirit of the times. The strength of Rome's constitutional government is highlighted through consistent elections and administrative responses despite the war's strain. The continuity of Roman society and government provides a dramatic unity to Livy's "The War with Hannibal." The translation by Aubrey de Sélincourt aims to reflect Livy's prose style and is noted for its humanist and scholarly qualities. The 1972 reprint of the translation includes a comprehensive index to assist students of Livy, thanks to the work of Jean Maund. 3 / 129 The Second Punic War was characterized by the immense resources and power of the combatants, their history of conflict, and the intense passions and hatred that fueled their actions. Hamilcar Barca, a Carthaginian general, was motivated by a deep sense of revenge against Rome, which was worsened by the loss of Sicily and Sardinia and the tribute imposed by Rome after the First Punic War. Hasdrubal succeeded Hamilcar and pursued a policy of peaceful expansion in Spain, but his rule ended violently with his assassination. The Romans renewed peace with Hasdrubal, establishing the Ebro River as a boundary and recognizing the neutrality of Saguntum. Hannibal was chosen by the military and popular support in Carthage to succeed Hasdrubal and showed both exceptional military skills and troubling traits such as cruelty and perfidy. Hannibal launched his campaign against Rome with strategic deception by attacking surrounding tribes to disguise his intentions against Saguntum. The Carthaginian army under Hannibal employed clever tactics to defeat larger enemy forces, utilizing the terrain and their superior cavalry and elephants effectively. Hannibal's early victories in his campaign were marked by strategic genius, building strong loyalty among his troops and establishing a foundation for his later advances into Italy. 4 / 129 The majority of Spain south of the Ebro River had fallen under Carthaginian control, excluding Saguntum. Hannibal began agitating neighboring tribes against Saguntum and positioned himself as their ally. Saguntum, sensing impending conflict, sought aid from Rome, prompting Roman envoys to be sent to demand Hannibal refrain from attacking the city and to bring complaints to Carthage. The Roman Senate debated strategies, opting to await further reports before declaring war, while sending envoys to directly confront Hannibal and then Carthage if necessary. Hannibal, despite an injury, led a fierce and strategic attack on Saguntum, which was a prosperous town with strong defenses and resilient citizens. The Saguntines managed to repel some of Hannibal’s assaults, even seriously wounding him, leading to a temporary slowdown in the fighting. Carthaginian forces had numerical superiority but Saguntum's defenders showed remarkable resilience and tactical intelligence in the face of siege and assault. Roman envoys were refused a meeting with Hannibal and warned of the dangers of their mission by his forces, reflecting tensions and the broader geopolitical implications of the conflict. In Carthage, the debate over the treaty with Rome was heated, with Hanno the only senator advocating for peace, warning of the dire consequences of war with Rome and criticizing Hannibal’s actions. Despite Hanno's warnings, the Carthaginian senate chose not to surrender Hannibal to the Romans, setting the stage for a conflict that Hanno predicted would fall back on Carthage itself. 5 / 129 Hanno proposed surrendering Hannibal to the Romans and reparations to Saguntum, but the Carthaginian Senate favored Hannibal. The Romans delayed diplomatically while Hannibal rallied his troops, promising them spoils from Saguntum. Hannibal's siege was strategic, overcoming the old-fashioned walls of Saguntum and establishing a foothold inside. Despite Hannibal's absence on a separate campaign, his officer Maharbal maintained the siege effectively. The Saguntine negotiators failed to secure peace with Hannibal under terms favorable to their people. Alorcus, a Spaniard, attempted to negotiate a surrender, arguing the situation was dire and resistance futile. Hannibal's terms for surrender were harsh, demanding all valuables and that the Saguntines leave only with their clothing. The Saguntine leaders chose death over surrender, destroying their wealth and themselves to avoid capture. Hannibal ordered no mercy for the military-aged men of Saguntum, leading to mass deaths and enslavement. Despite some wealth being destroyed, a significant amount of valuables and prisoners were sent to Carthage. Discrepancies in historical records suggest uncertainty about the timeline of Saguntum's fall and Hannibal's subsequent movements. 6 / 129 The battle of Trebia's timing is clarified, highlighting Flaminius's election in Rome after the battle. Rome's Senate experienced a profound emotional impact upon hearing of Saguntum's fall, realizing the magnitude of the impending conflict with Carthage. Military preparations for the war were extensive, with a specific allocation of legions, allied troops, and fleets to the consuls Cornelius and Sempronius. The Roman people voted in favor of war against Carthage, leading to a period of public prayer for a successful outcome. A Roman delegation, tasked with inquiring about Carthage's stance on the attack on Saguntum, delivered an ultimatum leading to the declaration of war. The Roman envoys to Spain initially succeeded in securing the Bargusii's friendship but faced rejection and criticism from the Volciani and other Spanish tribes, questioning Roman loyalty. In Gaul, the Romans encountered hostility and were seen as both presumptuous and laughable for requesting that the Gauls not allow Hannibal passage. Only in Massilia did the Roman delegates find a friendly reception and obtain intelligence about Hannibal's successful diplomatic efforts with the Gauls. 7 / 129 Gallic tribes valued gold and were difficult allies unless appeased by such gifts. Roman envoys completed their tour of Spain and Gaul, returning to a Rome abuzz with the anticipation of war with Carthage. Hannibal, aware he was the cause and commander of the impending war, swiftly planned his campaign after wintering in New Carthage. He offered his troops leave to visit their families before the campaign, strengthening their morale. Hannibal took measures to prevent a Roman invasion of Africa by stationing forces in Sicily and requesting additional African troops. African troops were to be stationed in Spain and Spanish troops in Africa to ensure loyalty. Hannibal fortified the defense of Spain under his brother Hasdrubal, comprising mainly African forces and a fleet for coastal defense. After a strategic visit to Gades, Hannibal experienced a prophetic dream symbolizing the devastation of Italy. Hannibal crossed the Ebro with a large force, dispatching a party ahead to secure the Alpine passes and the cooperation of Gallic chieftains through bribes. Facing a possible mutiny due to the daunting prospect of the Alps, Hannibal cleverly dismissed discontented troops to maintain morale. Hannibal managed to secure peaceful passage through Gaul by diplomacy and gifts to the Gallic chieftains. Tensions in Gaul rose with the Boii and Insubrian Gauls revolting against Rome, partly due to resentment against Roman settlements in the region. Gauls, inexperienced in siege tactics, captured Roman envoys during a truce negotiation, leading to further Roman military actions. A Roman praetor suffered losses due to Gallic guerrilla tactics, but managed to reach safety after exiting the woodlands. Rome now faced the prospect of war on two fronts, against Gaul and Carthage. 8 / 129 The Senate dispatched fresh troops and a Roman legion with allies to aid Manlius without facing enemy hindrance. Cornelius Scipio set sail with a fresh legion and sixty warships, anchoring near Massilia and uncertain of Hannibal's location. Scipio sent 300 cavalry with local guides to reconnoiter, while Hannibal secured boats and rafts with local help to cross the Rhône. Hannibal used a clever diversion by sending Hanno to attack the enemy's rear, which allowed his main force to cross the Rhône unchallenged. Different techniques were used to transport elephants across the river, including a raft disguised as land and goading a ferocious one into the water. A skirmish between Numidian and Roman cavalry resulted in a Roman victory but with significant losses, suggesting a tough campaign ahead. Hannibal was advised by the Boii to focus on invading Italy rather than engaging Scipio directly. The Carthaginian army was wary of Roman might and the daunting Alps but was encouraged by Hannibal's rousing speech to continue their march. Hannibal aimed to inspire confidence in his troops, emphasizing their past victories and diminishing the perceived insurmountability of the Alps. 9 / 129 Hannibal motivated his troops by highlighting the ambition to conquer Rome, a feat even the Gauls had once achieved. After his speech, Hannibal prepared his army for the march, taking a longer route through the Rhône valley to avoid Roman confrontation until Italy was reached. He solved a local dispute among the Allobroges, favoring the rightful king Brancus, which earned him supplies and support for his campaign. Hannibal's troops faced a challenging crossing at the river Druentia, which was swollen by rains and caused considerable disorder. Roman consul Publius Cornelius missed intercepting Hannibal by three days and decided to confront him later, in Italy, while sending his brother to maintain Roman interests in Spain. Hannibal’s army encountered the daunting sight of the Alps and faced the threat of local tribesmen who could have ambushed them from above. By a strategic night maneuver, Hannibal took control of a pass, enabling safe passage for his troops despite the initial chaos caused by the terrain and enemy attacks. He captured a chief village and sustained his army for three days, making good progress through less guarded regions. Hannibal narrowly avoided a trap by a mountain tribe through cautious diplomacy and tactical advancement. Hannibal’s rear guard successfully repelled attacks during a critical moment when the column was vulnerable in a narrow pass. The army was temporarily divided but managed to regroup the next day and continued on, despite suffering losses, particularly among the pack animals. 10 / 129 The army encountered sporadic opposition from natives in the form of raids but were protected, in part, by the intimidating presence of elephants. After a grueling ascent, Hannibal's army reached the summit and rested for two days amid early signs of winter. The descent into Italy was treacherous, with the army struggling over slippery and steep terrain, leading to confusion and falls. Hannibal personally intervened to find a new path after encountering an impassable precipice, and the army had to laboriously clear snow and construct a path through rock using fire and vinegar to create a zigzag trail. The army took four days to construct a passable route, during which time food scarcity was a significant challenge. Upon reaching the more hospitable plains, the army rested for three days, allowing the troops and animals to recover. Hannibal's army's size upon entering Italy is debated, with estimates rangingfrom 20,000 to 100,000 infantry and 6,000 to 20,000 cavalry. Disagreements persist about the exact route Hannibal took over the Alps, with different historical accounts suggesting varying paths. Upon arrival in Italy, the army was not in a position for immediate battle due to the toll of their journey. Hannibal quickly took advantage of local conflicts and secured the chief town of the Taurini. Hannibal and the Roman consul Scipio recognized each other's strengths, each having made strategic and speedy maneuvers to confront one another. Scipio, leading the Roman troops, emphasized the Romans' past victories over Carthage and motivated his men by highlighting the differences between Hannibal's and his own forces. 11 / 129 The speaker presents the enemy as weakened and demoralized, suffering from the harsh conditions of the Alps and the loss of troops. The speaker, confident in his own actions and decisions, describes his strategic choices to confront Hannibal and implies that his forces are prepared and deliberate in their positioning for battle. A vivid contrast is drawn between the debilitated state of Hannibal’s forces and the robust, battle-ready state of the speaker’s troops, invoking a sense of superiority. The speaker rallies the troops by invoking a sense of betrayal by the enemy and highlighting past mercies shown by their own side, implying a moral high ground. Hannibal's strategy is depicted as relying on action rather than words, using a display of combat with prisoners to boost morale and illustrate the desperate situation his troops face. Hannibal's speech focuses on the adversity his men have overcome and the riches that await them should they be victorious, while downplaying the strength of the Roman forces. The Carthaginian leader appeals to his troops' personal experience with him as a commander, stressing his familiarity with their valor and the shared history of battles they have fought together. Hannibal motivates his troops by reminding them of the injustice and threats they face from Rome, portraying the Romans as overreaching oppressors, thereby justifying their own aggression. The speech concludes with Hannibal emphasizing that nothing remains for his troops but what they can secure by force, setting up a fight for survival and suggesting that victory is the only option for maintaining their freedom and possessions. 12 / 129 Scipio and Hannibal delivered motivating speeches to their troops, highlighting the importance of bravery and offering rewards for valor. Hannibal strategically targeted Roman allies and promised numerous rewards to his soldiers and allies to motivate them for the impending battle. Scipio's first military maneuver was to build a bridge over the Ticinus River, which Hannibal countered by sending his cavalry to raid the local tribesmen allied with Rome. The first encounter between the Roman and Carthaginian forces near the Ticinus River ended with Roman troops retreating after Scipio was wounded, saved by his son, the future Africanus. Ominous omens disturbed the Roman camp, and Scipio decided to withdraw his forces to a more defensible position across the Po River. Hannibal captured a Roman store of grain at Clastidium by bribing the commander, securing vital supplies for his army. The Carthaginian cavalry demonstrated superiority over the Romans in the open plains, prompting Scipio to seek more favorable terrain for his infantry. A betrayal by Gallic auxiliaries in the Roman camp led to their defection to Hannibal, which increased fears of a wider Gallic uprising against Rome. Naval skirmishes around Sicily and the Italian islands occurred simultaneously with the land war, with Carthage aiming to disrupt Roman supply lines and alliances. 13 / 129 Military officers were sent to neighboring communities to maintain vigilance, with a particular emphasis on securing Lilybaeum. Naval allies were ordered to be ready with stocked ships for quick deployment, and coastal lookouts were established to monitor for the enemy fleet. The Carthaginians aimed for a surprise attack at dawn but were spotted early due to their sails and the moonlight, leading to their loss of the element of surprise. The Romans were prepared and eager for the confrontation, trusting in their superior numbers and past victories. Roman tactics favored close-quarters combat, whereas the Carthaginians relied on their naval skills, resulting in a disadvantage when grappled due to fewer soldiers on their ships. Seven Carthaginian ships were captured, and 1,700 personnel were taken prisoner without significant damage to the Roman fleet. Consul Sempronius, after learning of the battle at Lilybaeum, decided to sail there immediately with support from Hiero, who offered provisions and clothing to Roman forces. Sempronius took control of Malta from the Carthaginians and secured the eastern part of Sicily before moving to counter the Carthaginian squadron near the Vulcan Islands. The Carthaginian squadron was not found as it had already left to raid Italy, leading Sempronius to split his forces for various defensive and offensive operations. Sempronius, feeling victorious and ready for battle, contrasted with his colleague's more cautious approach, pushed for immediate action against Hannibal. Hannibal, anticipating the Roman strategy, prepared to engage in battle, exploiting the eagerness and temperament of Consul Sempronius. Hannibal set a trap near a stream with dense vegetation, instructing his brother Mago to select and prepare men for an ambush. 14 / 129 Mago and a contingent of Numidian cavalry were dispatched by Hannibal to draw the Romans into battle by attacking and retreating strategically. Roman Consul Sempronius hastily engaged the Numidians without proper preparation, leading his troops into harsh winter conditions unprepared for the ensuing battle. Hannibal's forces were well-prepared with a hearty breakfast, warmed by fires, and rubbed with oil to maintain flexibility against the cold. The Roman troops suffered from the extreme cold and fatigue, having been lured into crossing a swollen river, which exacerbated their disadvantage. Hannibal positioned his troops strategically, with a mix of infantry, cavalry, and elephants, and utilized the Balearic slingers effectively against the Roman cavalry. Despite facing overwhelming odds, 10,000 Romans managed to break through the Carthaginian lines, escaping to Placentia. Bad weather conditions, including rain and sleet, adversely affected both sides, with the Romans losing pack-animals and elephants, and the Carthaginians too exhausted to enjoy their victory. After the battle, Sempronius managed to reach Rome, where he conducted the consular elections before returning to the front. Hannibal continued his campaign during the winter, successfully capturing a trading post by force after a failed attempt at another. Harrowing weather on the Apennines further challenged Hannibal's troops, who struggled with violent winds, thunder, and severe cold as they pressed on to Etruria. 15 / 129 After a strenuous effort, Hannibal's forces revived slightly post-battle, though many men and animals, including elephants, perished. Hannibal challenged Sempronius near Placentia but initially no battle ensued; the subsequent clash was indecisive with both sides incurring nearly equal losses. Hannibal moved into Liguria and Sempronius to Luca, with Ligurians capturing and handing over Roman officers to Hannibal. Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio advanced Roman interests in Spain, securing alliances and winning a significant victory over Hanno. Hasdrubal's attempt to confront Scipio led to a defeat at Cissis and a subsequent tactical retreat. Scipio punished the Ilergetes for their defection and successfully subdued the Ausetani, despite severe winter conditions hampering the siege. Mysterious omens reported in Rome led to public religious ceremonies and offerings to appease the gods. Flaminius, anticipating political resistance in Rome due to his history with the Senate, took command of his troops instead of traditionally entering office in Rome. 16 / 129 The Senate was furious with Flaminius for his disregard of traditional ceremonies and religious duties upon taking office and voted unanimously for his recall. Flaminius ignored previous warnings and upon taking office, experienced an ill omen during a sacrifice, further alarming the Senate and the people. He took command of two legions and began his march to Etruria, which was seen as a bad sign by many. Hannibal moved from his winter quarters in the spring, facing treachery from the Gauls and having to disguise himself to avoid assassination attempts. Reports of unnatural occurrences across various locations in Italy caused great concern, prompting the Senate to conduct numerous religious ceremonies and offerings to appease the gods. While Rome was engaged in propitiatory rites, Hannibal advanced despite facing severe challenges from the flooded Arno, which led to significant losses for his troops. Hannibal suffered an infection that cost him the sight of one eye. Hannibal aimed to provoke Flaminius, known for his arrogance and recklessness, by attacking Etruscan lands to draw him into battle. Flaminius was driven by his reputation and the pressure to act against Hannibal’s incursions in Italy, setting the stage for confrontation. 17 / 129 Flaminius rejected his officers' advice for caution and chose immediate action against Hannibal. Omens of bad luck appeared as Flaminius prepared for battle: his horse stumbled, and a standard wouldn't lift. Despite omens and officer disapproval, Flaminius's men admired his boldness as they marched to battle. Hannibal strategically positioned his forces to trap the Romans between Lake Trasimene and surrounding hills. The Romans, under Flaminius, were caught unprepared by Hannibal's ambush and enveloped in mist. Flaminius attempted to rally his disordered troops amidst the chaos and was killed by Ducarius, an Insubrian. Roman forces were decimated; some escaped while others were captured or killed in the confusion. The Battle of Lake Trasimene ended as a devastating defeat for the Romans, with heavy casualties. Hannibal honored his fallen soldiers with burial and sought Flaminius's body, which was never found. Rome was consumed by terror and confusion upon hearing the news, and the Praetor could only confirm the defeat. In the following days, anxiety gripped Rome as the populace awaited news of the soldiers' fates. 18 / 129 The Roman people were deeply affected by the war news, with emotions ranging from joy to grief, often with tragic outcomes. The Senate debated extensively on leadership and military strategies in response to their defeats. A significant Roman force was destroyed by Hannibal in Umbria, causing varying degrees of despair among the people. The appointment of a dictator was seen as a necessary measure, with Quintus Fabius Maximus chosen for the role under challenging circumstances. Hannibal's campaign continued through Umbria to Spoletium, and then to Picenum, experiencing both successes and setbacks. The religious aspect was significant, with auspices and sacrifices believed to influence the war's outcome, leading to extensive rituals and vows, including the Great Games and Sacred Spring. Measures to secure Rome's defense were taken, including moving people to fortified towns and destroying crops to prevent them from enemy hands. Fabius Maximus aimed to avoid direct engagement with Hannibal, focusing instead on strategic positioning and avoiding unnecessary risks. Hannibal's initial reactions to Fabius's tactics were of disdain, but he also felt a growing concern about facing a more cautious and competent opponent. 19 / 129 Hannibal employed guerrilla tactics against Fabius, who strategically avoided major confrontation, keeping to high ground and focusing on defense and minor skirmishes to bolster his troops' morale. Fabius's tactics were criticized by his Master of Horse, Minucius, who saw them as cowardice and urged for more aggressive action. Hannibal continued his strategy of provocation, capturing cities and releasing Italian prisoners to win local support, considering an attack on Capua after being persuaded by Campanian defectors. The guide's misinterpretation of Hannibal's orders led to a wrong turn and resulted in the guide's execution; Hannibal then made a successful raid on Falernian territory. Despite the ravaging of their lands, Rome’s allies remained loyal, attributed to Rome’s fair and moderate rule. Dissatisfaction within the Roman ranks grew as Minucius openly criticized Fabius’s cautious approach, nearly inciting mutiny. Despite unpopularity and pressure, Fabius maintained his strategy, blocking Hannibal's potential retreat paths and preparing for the long-term aspect of the war. An overzealous Roman reconnaissance led by Mancinus ended in a Carthaginian ambush, demonstrating the risks of departing from Fabius's cautious methods. Minucius and Fabius regrouped, positioning their forces strategically on Hannibal’s expected route, setting the stage for a possible encounter. 20 / 129 Roman losses were 200 and Carthaginian losses were 800 after a confrontation. Hannibal appeared trapped by Roman forces but used a stratagem involving oxen with burning twigs on their horns to create confusion and escape. Hannibal moved his troops silently at night, creating an illusion of a larger force and causing Roman guards to abandon their post. Fabius, the Roman commander, opted to avoid night battles and kept his troops fortified, maintaining a strategy of caution. Hannibal feigned a march on Rome to mislead Roman forces, then turned to devastate the territory of the Peligni. Fabius was called back to Rome for religious matters and advised his substitute to continue his cautious strategy. Hostilities in Spain resumed with naval battles between Carthaginians under Hasdrubal and Romans under Gnaeus Scipio. Hasdrubal's ill-prepared fleet was surprised by Scipio's attack, resulting in Roman victory and dominance of the coast. Scipio's forces ravaged towns and collected a substantial amount of plunder from the Spanish coast and islands. Numerous Spanish tribes submitted to Roman authority, and Hasdrubal retreated to Lusitania. Mandonius and Indibilis incited a revolt among Spanish tribes, but were quickly subdued by Roman forces. Despite a brief period of calm, Hasdrubal returned to protect allies north of the Ebro due to the unrest caused by Spanish tribes. 21 / 129 Celtiberians rebelled against Carthage after a message from Scipio, captured three towns, and defeated Hasdrubal twice. Publius Scipio was sent to Spain with a fleet, troops, and supplies, and his arrival brought joy to Roman and allied forces. Scipio and his brother took joint command in Spain, targeting Carthaginian-held Saguntum to retrieve Spanish hostages. A Spanish nobleman, Abelux, switched allegiance from Carthage to Rome and devised a plan to deliver the hostages to the Romans. Abelux deceived the Carthaginian governor, Bostar, and orchestrated the handover of hostages, winning the trust of the Spanish tribes for Rome. Spanish tribes began to consider alliance with Rome, but the onset of winter delayed potential actions. Fabius's strategy in Italy gained Rome time, but his tactics were unpopular, seen as too cautious and were misunderstood as weakness. Fabius's own land was spared by Hannibal, leading to rumors of a secret pact, contributing to his unpopularity. To solve a financial deadlock regarding prisoner exchange, Fabius sold his estate and paid the public debt, restoring his reputation. Hannibal adjusted his military tactics by feigning weakness to invite attacks, while maintaining a strategic advantage over Roman forces. Minucius, acting as commander in Fabius’s absence, sought a more aggressive approach, leading to mixed results against Hannibal. Reports of a Roman victory were sent to Rome by Minucius, but Fabius remained skeptical of the exaggerated success. 22 / 129 Metilius, a people’s tribune, criticized Dictator Quintus Fabius for extending the war to prolong his power and accused him of deliberately keeping the Roman forces passive. Fabius, avoiding public assemblies and facing hostility in the Senate, insisted that the quality of a commander outweighs unforeseen circumstances and stood by his cautious strategy. Fabius left Rome to avoid the debate over the division of command and rejoined his army, showing resilience against both Hannibal and internal political pressures. Minucius, empowered by recent success and public support, was seen as overconfident and disrespectful towards Fabius, expecting to continue his aggressive tactics. A proposal, backed by Gaius Terentius Varro, sought to equalize power between Fabius and Minucius, which was perceived as a slight against Fabius yet he bore it calmly. Fabius and Minucius agreed to divide the army and command equally, though Fabius refused to alternate days of command, emphasizing the need for a consistent strategy. Hannibal, aware of the Roman discord, planned to exploit Minucius's recklessness and Fabius's reduced authority. Minucius fell into Hannibal’s trap by rashly engaging in battle, leading to a dire situation for his forces. Fabius, upon realizing Minucius's plight, intervened with his forces to prevent a complete Roman defeat, showcasing his leadership and strategic prudence. 23 / 129 Minucius acknowledges the virtue of following wise counsel and decides to unite his forces with Fabius, addressing Fabius as 'Father' to honor his rank and service. The Roman troops march to Fabius's camp, where Minucius relinquishes his independent command, offering his legions back to Fabius and requesting to retain his position as master of Horse. The Roman army's gesture of unity and respect towards Fabius and his strategy leads to widespread rejoicing and a boost in morale, both within the army and in Rome. Roman Consul Gnaeus Servilius Geminus conducts a naval campaign around Sardinia, Corsica, and Africa, which ultimately results in heavy Roman losses and a retreat to Sicily. There is confusion in historical accounts about Fabius's role, with some claiming he was the first dictator appointed by the people, while others suggest this was an error and he was actually an acting dictator. New Roman consuls take command and adopt Fabius's cautious military strategy against Hannibal, refusing to engage in full-scale battle to avoid unnecessary losses. Naples demonstrates allegiance to Rome by offering gold platters to assist with war expenses, and Rome graciously accepts a token of this generosity. Roman authorities deal with a Carthaginian spy and address various diplomatic and domestic issues, showing Rome's capacity to manage its vast concerns despite the ongoing war. Roman religious and political practices are attended to, including the construction of the Temple of Concord and the management of consular elections, highlighting their civil dedication amidst warfare. The consular elections in Rome are marked by political strife, with the people favoring a populist candidate, Gaius Terentius Varro, who is critical of the Senate and the war strategy, reflecting deep societal divisions during the war. 24 / 129 The senatorial party had members who previously held offices and now despised the common people, aiming to control elections through an interregnum. Gaius Terentius Varro was elected consul with the expectation that he would oversee further elections, reflecting popular will against patrician candidates. Lucius Aemilius Paullus, a previous consul with a tarnished reputation, was elected again due to his opposition to the popular party, indicating a tense political climate. The Roman armed forces were increased, with discrepancies in historical accounts regarding the exact numbers, but consensus on the increased war effort compared to previous years. Prodigies and omens in Rome led to consultations of the Sacred Books and religious ceremonies to address public fear. Hiero of Syracuse demonstrated loyalty to Rome by sending a golden statue of Victory and supplies, suggesting Rome's allies had confidence in her despite setbacks. New military recruits took a formal oath for the first time, indicating a shift toward more stringent military commitments. The consul Varro’s arrogant speeches highlighted the division in military strategy and leadership styles between him and his colleague Paullus. Fabius Maximus cautioned Paullus about the challenges of co-command with Varro, who he perceived as reckless and a potential rival, not just to Hannibal but to Paullus himself. 25 / 129 The only successful strategy to defeat Hannibal, according to the speaker, lies in leveraging local Italian support and resources, allowing time to strengthen and avoiding direct engagement with an enemy who is weakening day by day. The Roman general Paullus is advised to maintain a strategy of caution and to resist pressure from both his colleague Varro and public opinion, which may misconstrue his careful tactics as weakness. The Roman forces are divided into two camps, with experienced troops in the larger, older camp and new recruits near Hannibal's position, highlighting a strategic arrangement in anticipation of confrontation. Hannibal faces severe supply shortages, with only ten days' worth of food left and the threat of desertion from his Spanish troops, indicating his precarious position. A minor Roman victory against Carthaginian raiding parties is celebrated but is also recognized as a potential lure for more reckless Roman actions by Hannibal. Hannibal employs deception by setting a trap for the Romans, which Paullus suspects but Varro is eager to fall into, revealing a divide in the Roman command. Varro's impatience and eagerness to engage with the enemy contrast with Paullus's cautious approach, a dynamic that is manipulated by Hannibal. Superstitious signs and the unexpected arrival of two escaped slaves with intelligence on Hannibal's position help Paullus to reassert some control and avoid immediate disaster. Hannibal’s ruse is discovered by the Romans, and he is forced to change his strategy, deciding to move his troops to Apulia where conditions are more favorable, showcasing his adaptability. The differing opinions between the consuls, Varro and Paullus, continue, with one favoring immediate pursuit and the other advocating for a more measured approach. 26 / 129 Varro and Paullus, Roman consuls, disagreed on military strategy, leading to a conflicted approach before the Battle of Cannae. Hannibal positioned the Carthaginian army advantageously, using the local geography and climate, including the wind, to his benefit. Roman forces faced logistical challenges, such as difficulty in accessing water from the Aufidus River due to Hannibal's maneuvers. The Roman army's morale was affected by internal disputes and threats of mutiny, exacerbated by the consuls' discord. Hannibal used strategic withdrawals and his Numidian cavalry effectively to provoke and harass the Romans. The Roman army was organized with cavalry on the wings and legionaries in the center; consuls commanded the wings, with Servilius in control of the center. Hannibal's forces included a mix of African, Gallic, and Spanish troops, with some wearing captured Roman armor, adding to the psychological impact. The Carthaginians executed a well-planned battle formation, which resulted in encircling the Roman forces, leading to a devastating defeat for Rome. Roman forces were outmaneuvered and outperformed by Carthaginian cavalry and infantry tactics. The Roman left wing fell to a Numidian ruse, which further led to disarray and heavy losses. Paullus, despite being wounded, made several attempts to reorganize and lead his men but ultimately failed. The defeat at Cannae was catastrophic, with Roman forces suffering massive casualties and strategic loss. 27 / 129 The Roman consul Paullus fell in battle, preferring death over dishonor. A significant portion of the Roman forces sought refuge in camps and nearby Cannae, while Consul Varro escaped with a few men. Casualties at the Battle of Cannae included 45,500 infantry and 2,700 cavalry, with many high-ranking officers and elected officials among the dead. The defeat at Cannae was catastrophic, with almost the entire army perishing, but it did not result in the immediate fall of Rome. Roman soldiers in the camps, without leaders and arms, contemplated escape strategies, with some acting on impulse to break through enemy lines. Hannibal's victory was immense, but his delay in pursuing the Roman capital is believed to have saved Rome. Hannibal's forces captured the smaller Roman camp with relative ease, negotiating surrender terms that included ransom. A significant amount of material wealth was seized from the Romans, though Hannibal ordered the collection and burial of his own troops' bodies. The town of Canusium and a wealthy local woman named Busa provided refuge and assistance to the Roman survivors. Roman leadership emerged among the survivors, with a focus on preventing desertion and maintaining allegiance to Rome. Young Scipio took decisive action against a group of Romans planning to flee the country, forcing them to swear an oath to remain and defend Rome. 28 / 129 Varro joined forces with 4,000 fugitives at Venusia, where they received hospitality and gifts from the locals. Varro moved his troops to Canusium to join with the forces of Appius and Scipio, bolstering defenses. Rome was in a state of terror, unaware of the survival of any troops, fearing both consuls were lost and the military force annihilated. The praetors organized the Senate to devise a defense strategy as Hannibal was expected to attack Rome. Fabius Maximus suggested sending out riders for information and maintaining order in the city by keeping women indoors and limiting mourning to 30 days. Varro informed Rome of the survival of 10,000 men at Canusium, while Hannibal was at Cannae dealing with prisoners and spoils. The Senate decided to send reinforcements to Canusium and instructed Varro to return to Rome. To address the manpower shortage, Rome enlisted slaves as soldiers and prepared arms and weapons from temple spoils. Hannibal treated his non-Roman prisoners with kindness and offered Roman prisoners ransom terms, which they accepted. A delegation was sent to Rome to negotiate for the prisoners, but they were not allowed into the city, and one delegate broke his oath to return after leaving. In Rome, the delegation from the prisoners addressed the Senate, emphasizing their worth and the unusual situation. 29 / 129 Roman soldiers defended their camp against the enemy until they were completely surrounded and cut off from any hope of breaking through, leading them to consider surrender for ransom after a fierce battle at Cannae. Historical precedents of Romans ransoming their freedom, such as from the Gauls and at Tarentum, are cited, drawing a distinction between their orderly withdrawal and the disgrace of panic-stricken flight in past defeats. The speaker argues that their survival was due to the enemy's exhaustion, not cowardice, and suggests that those who fled the battle should not be considered superior to the soldiers who stayed to guard the camp and were captured. The prisoners, through the speech, appeal to the Senate for ransom, asserting their value as soldiers and comparing their potential ransom favorably to the cost of arming slaves, emphasizing their Roman identity and readiness to serve again. An impassioned plea is made, reminding the Senate of the dire conditions of the prisoners and the emotional toll on their families, implying that denying ransom would equate to disowning them and consigning them to a life unworthy of Romans. Titus Manlius Torquatus, representing the opposition in the Senate, criticizes the prisoners for not attempting escape and equates their surrender with cowardice and betrayal, citing examples of valor from Roman history that they failed to emulate. Manlius harshly proposes that the prisoners do not deserve ransom, arguing that their actions in both fleeing and surrendering were dishonorable, and contrasts them with those who fought their way back to freedom. Despite the emotional appeals and the familial connections of many senators to the prisoners, the harsh stance represented by Manlius wins the debate in the Senate. 30 / 129 The Senate refused to ransom Roman prisoners from Hannibal, prioritizing financial concerns and refusing to aid the enemy financially. A deceptive delegate who broke his oath to return to camp was later arrested by the Senate's unanimous decision to be delivered to Hannibal. There are conflicting accounts regarding the Roman prisoners’ delegation to the Senate, with variations in the number of delegates and their fate. Rome's allies began to defect to the Carthaginian side following the defeat at Cannae, signifying the severity of the loss. Despite multiple defeats and the defection of allies, Rome refused to consider peace, showing remarkable resilience and unity. Hannibal's tactics in the region included deceit and ambushes, notably near Naples, though he refrained from attacking the city directly due to its formidable defenses. In Capua, political manipulation was rife, with Pacuvius Calavius controlling the Senate by leveraging the threat of violence from the common people. Calavius used a clever ruse to maintain the Senate while making it answerable to the commons and himself, thereby consolidating his power without violence. 31 / 129 The Senate began seeking favor with the commons, undermining their previous dignities for popular support. Capua indulged in luxury and excess, propelled by a surplus of resources and a lack of self-control, exacerbating their contempt for Roman law and power. Campanians were reluctant to break from Rome due to familial ties and shared citizenship, but the defeat at Cannae weakened these bonds. Varro, the Roman consul, addressed the Campanian envoys, emphasizing Rome’s plight and Campania’s obligation to aid due to past alliances. Campanian envoys, swayed by Varro’s dire depiction of Rome’s situation, considered asserting dominance in Italy with Hannibal’s eventual departure. A decision to abandon Rome was postponed by older senators in Capua but was eventually agreed upon by a majority. Terms with Hannibal were established, guaranteeing Capua's autonomy, and followed by the Campanians committing atrocities against Romans in the city. Decius Magius opposed Capua’s defection to Hannibal and advocated for loyalty to Rome, which led to a conflict with Hannibal. Hannibal’s arrival in Capua was treated as a celebration, sidelining serious political matters for a day of festivities. Hannibal attended a luxurious banquet in his honor at the house of prominent Capuan supporters of Carthage. 32 / 129 Alavius's son planned to assassinate Hannibal to regain favor with Rome but was dissuaded by his father, Calavius, who highlighted the oath they had sworn and the danger of the act. The next day, Hannibal demanded Decius Magius to be surrendered to him, which the senate agreed to despite concerns over liberty and justice. Decius Magius was arrested, protested publicly, and was shipped to Carthage to prevent an uprising in Capua. Magius was released in Cyrenae due to treaty violations and chose to reside under the protection of the Egyptian king rather than return to Capua or go to Rome. Quintus Fabius Pictor reported to the Roman Senate the oracle's advice for propitiation and the promise of a brighter future if followed. Mago brought news of Hannibal's victories to Carthage and displayed the gold rings of Roman knights to signify the magnitude of their defeat at Cannae. Mago urged Carthage to send reinforcements and supplies to support Hannibal, who was far from home and had diminished forces despite his victories. 33 / 129 Hanno has not stopped regretting the war with Rome and accuses Hannibal’s generalship despite current successes. Hanno fears that Carthage is overly rejoicing and warns that the opportunity to dictate peace terms may slip away if not acted upon promptly. Hanno critically points out that despite Hannibal’s victories, no members of the Latin Confederacy or Roman tribes have defected to Carthage. Mago admits that he doesn't know the morale or hopes of the remaining Roman forces, indicating a lack of insight into the enemy's condition. Hanno suggests that Carthage's situation hasn’t improved since the war's start, as Rome has not sought peace talks despite significant defeats. Carthage decides to send Hannibal reinforcements and supplies, despite Hanno’s objections. The Romans, under dire circumstances, respond with urgency, enlisting forces including slaves and criminals, and arming them for combat. Hannibal’s attempts to capture Neapolitan towns are thwarted by the loyalty of the senate to Rome and the timely military response of Marcellus. Hannibal’s leniency towards Italians who are not Romans is highlighted by his treatment of Nuceria’s inhabitants after its fall. Marcellus retains control of Nola through strategic relationship building, particularly with Lucius Bantius, a local of influence. 34 / 129 Bantius's hostility was subdued by considerate treatment, leading him to become a courageous and loyal ally to Rome. Hannibal positioned his forces near Nola, causing the Roman commander Marcellus to prepare for battle within the city to prevent internal betrayal. Marcellus organized his troops strategically and repelled Hannibal's assault, resulting in a significant Carthaginian loss, although the exact number is debated. Following his failure at Nola, Hannibal executed punitive actions against Acerrae and then moved to Casilinum due to concerns about Roman movements and loyalty in Capua. The defenders of Casilinum cleverly repelled initial Carthaginian attempts to take the town, despite being outnumbered and undersupplied. Hannibal's troops became accustomed to comfort and luxury during their winter in Capua, leading to a decline in their military discipline and effectiveness. The siege of Casilinum continued, with the town's defenders enduring severe deprivation due to Hannibal's blockade. Roman forces, commanded by Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, were present outside Casilinum, but orders from higher command limited their engagement. 35 / 129 Gracchus devised a plan to aid the besieged by floating jars of grain down the river, which worked until the enemy noticed and thwarted further attempts. The besieged resorted to extreme measures for food, including eating softened leather and roots, and attempted to sow turnips as a last-ditch effort. Negotiations with Hannibal led to the besieged's release in exchange for gold, although not all survived to return to their homeland. Casilinum was returned to the Campanians with a Carthaginian garrison, while the Roman Senate honored the surviving Praenestines with pay, exemptions, and citizenship offers, which they declined. Petelia, loyal to Rome, was under siege and when it sought aid, the Senate, unable to help, advised them to prioritize their own survival. Financial strain in Rome affected military operations in Sicily and Sardinia, with external help being sought and local contributions aiding the provinces. A financial commission was appointed in Rome to manage shortages, and key religious and civil posts were filled to maintain order. The Senate, depleted by deaths, rejected a proposal to recruit from the Latin allies, and instead appointed a dictator to revise the Senate list carefully and respectfully. The appointed dictator, Marcus Fabius Buteo, chose to maintain the Senate's integrity by not removing existing members but filling vacancies based on seniority and service. 36 / 129 A comprehensive reform was conducted where new members were elected to the Senate, enhancing its strength and legitimacy. The consul, after significant achievements, resigned his commission and mixed with the public, demonstrating humility and avoiding undue attention. The Senate, concerned with public matters and military campaigns, called upon military leaders to return to Rome to conduct elections and discuss strategies. Lucius Postumius and Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus were elected as consuls, with other significant appointments filling praetor positions. Disastrous news arrived with the death of the consul-elect Lucius Postumius in Gaul, leading to a devastating military defeat caused by an ambush. The reaction to the calamity in Rome was significant, with a temporary closure of shops and silence in the streets. The Senate and Gracchus worked to reassure the public, prioritizing the threat from Hannibal over immediate retaliation in Gaul, adjusting military allocations and strategies accordingly. Decisions were made to shift the focus from the Gaul campaign, assign armies differently, and address troop strengths and deployments in various regions. In Spain, the Roman commanders Publius and Gnaeus Scipio had successes against Carthaginian forces, contrasting with the setbacks in Italy. The Carthaginian commander Hasdrubal faced internal challenges and desertions but managed to gain a victory against undisciplined Spanish forces in a disciplined counterattack. The Spaniards captured a strategic town and gained control over resources, but their lack of discipline led to a significant defeat by Carthaginian forces led by Hasdrubal. 37 / 129 Hasdrubal received orders to move to Italy, which led to a shift of Spanish tribe allegiances to the Romans. Hasdrubal communicated the consequences of leaving Spain undefended, which would advantage the Romans. The Carthaginian senate, prioritizing Italy, sent Himilco with forces to secure Spain instead of changing Hasdrubal’s orders. Roman commanders focused on preventing Hasdrubal’s march to Italy, considering it a threat to Roman power. Hasdrubal collected money from tribes, aware that finances were crucial for securing passage and hiring mercenaries. A significant battle ensued, with strategic Roman formation and a strong defense rooted in fighting for their homeland. The Carthaginian center broke early in the battle, leading to a Roman advantage and eventual victory. This Roman victory gained them the support of Spanish tribes and impeded Hasdrubal’s plans to march to Italy. In other regions, Carthaginian forces captured several towns, although with heavy losses and under harsh conditions. Political shifts in allegiance occurred in Sicily, and Roman authority was challenged in various locations. Rome doubled taxes to fund its military, excluded Cannae survivors from payment, and reshuffled troops strategically. 38 / 129 Consul delayed elections hoping for Marcellus's return so he could be elected, which showed the Senate's preference for him due to his past services. Quintus Fabius Maximus and Titus Otacilius Crassus were appointed to dedicate shrines on the Capitol. A motion was proposed to grant Roman citizenship to 300 Campanian horsemen who had served loyally in Sicily. Marcellus was unanimously elected consul upon his return but had to resign due to an unfavorable omen and Fabius Maximus replaced him. Various prodigies and omens occurred, leading to nine days of religious observance and other expiations. Military commands and strategic responsibilities were distributed among various Roman leaders to prepare for ongoing and potential conflicts. News of a Carthaginian defeat in Spain and potential opportunities in Sardinia shifted strategic priorities, with forces being dispatched accordingly. Rome took measures to ensure grain supplies and the defense of various regions, calling on even judicial praetors for military service. An alliance between King Philip of Macedon and Hannibal was formed, threatening Rome's position, but Roman interception of envoys revealed the pact. Sardinia faced imminent revolt and war, prompting Rome to reinforce its military presence there, selecting an experienced leader to manage the situation. 39 / 129 After the Battle of Cannae, military operations slowed due to reduced morale and impaired fighting strength. The Campanians tried to take control of Cumae by persuasion, then through deceit involving a religious ceremony at Hamae. The consul Gracchus prepared his troops, a mix of veterans and slave-volunteers, for combat and sought to unify them regardless of their social status. Gracchus received intel about the Campanian plot and positioned his troops to surprise the Campanians at Hamae, leading to a successful surprise attack. Hannibal responded to the attack on his Campanian allies by marching to Cumae but was forced to retreat due to lack of supplies and unsuccessful siege attempts. Other Roman successes included victories near Grumentum and the recapture of towns from the Hirpini. Roman naval movements intercepted Macedonian and Carthaginian envoys, raising concerns about a possible large-scale war with Macedon. The Senate acted decisively, enhancing the navy and preparing for potential hostilities with Macedon while also securing financial and material support from allies. Despite preparations and countermeasures, one ship managed to return to Macedon, revealing to Philip that the Roman had intercepted his envoys and their messages. 40 / 129 The delegation consisting of Heraclitus, Crito, and Sositheus successfully postponed the war threatening Rome by capturing Philip's envoys. Consuls were active near Capua with Fabius capturing towns that sided with Hannibal and securing the loyalty of Nola. In Sardinia, Titus Manlius resumed military operations, commanding a sizable force and achieving a decisive victory over the Sardinian and Carthaginian armies. The capture of the Carthaginian commander Hasdrubal and other nobles by the Romans marked a significant victory and added prestige to their success. The complete subjugation of Sardinia was reported to the Roman Senate, with tribute and grain collected from the surrendered communities. Titus Otacilius caused considerable damage to the Carthaginians near Carthage and disrupted Hasdrubal's fleet. Bomilcar's efforts to reinforce Carthage's allies were thwarted, and Locri denied entry to the Romans. Marcellus's raids on Samnite territory led to a plea for aid to Hannibal, who responded by promising a grander victory than Cannae. Hannibal did not rush to aid the Hirpini and Samnites but instead planned to distract the Romans by threatening their allies. Hannibal was cautious upon approaching Nola, contradicting the envoys' claims and ensuring his military actions were well-calculated. 41 / 129 Hanno, representing the Carthaginians, tries to persuade the senators of Nola to defect from Rome, emphasizing Hannibal’s leniency and success versus Rome’s decline. Herennius Bassus and Herius Pettius, Nola's senators, refuse Hanno’s offer, reiterating their long-standing loyalty to Rome. Hannibal surrounds Nola for an assault, but Marcellus rallies his Roman troops for a defensive sortie, which is interrupted by a storm. After a minor skirmish, both armies withdraw, with the Carthaginians suffering more casualties. Subsequent to the storm, Hannibal orders a raid which prompts Marcellus to engage in battle again. Marcellus encourages his troops by highlighting the Carthaginians’ supposed decline in strength due to indulgence in luxury. Despite Hannibal’s provocations, his troops falter and are pushed back to their camp, with heavy losses. Marcellus receives praise for his leadership, and the Romans burn spoils as an offering to Vulcan. Some of Hannibal’s cavalry, primarily Spanish and Numidian, defect to Marcellus. Hannibal withdraws to Apulia for winter quarters, while Fabius takes measures to secure the region and harries Campanian lands. Campanians are compelled to defend their lands, leading to cavalry skirmishes. A duel between the Campanian Vibellius Taurea and the Roman Claudius Asellus ends with Taurea’s retreat, giving rise to a proverb about cowardice. A legendary tale suggests Claudius bravely rode through Nola unharmed, though the truth of this account is questioned. 42 / 129 The Roman consul moved his camp to allow Campanians to farm, and once crops grew, he used them as fodder for his Claudian camp. Marcellus was ordered to leave a sufficient garrison in Nola and dismiss extra troops to reduce expenses and the burden on allies. Gracchus moved his legions to Apulia, while Valerius was sent to defend the Sallentine coast and prepare for possible conflict with Macedonia. The Scipios reported from Spain about the lack of funds and supplies, suggesting raising money locally but needing other supplies from Rome. The Senate acknowledged the need but faced the dilemma of already extended resources, with Sicily and Sardinia unable to support themselves, let alone contribute. It was decided to ask those who had profited from government contracts to defer payment and include a clause in new contracts prioritizing them once funds were available. On the day of contract placement, three companies made two requests: exemption from military service and state coverage for losses due to sea transport or enemy action. The public business continued through private funding, showing deep patriotism and integrity in fulfilling contracts for the Roman forces. Roman forces relieved the besieged town of Iliturgi in Spain, defeating three Carthaginian armies and capturing or killing a significant number of enemies and elephants. Success in Spain led to many Spanish tribes aligning with Rome, marking greater achievements there than in Italy. Carthaginian forces led by Hanno and Hamilcar made moves in Southern Italy, but met with resistance and failed sieges. Locri, after some deliberation, chose to surrender to Carthage, securing peace and certain rights while avoiding plunder by sending away the Roman garrison. The Bruttians, frustrated by not being able to loot Rhegium and Locri, attacked Croton independently, hoping to seize control without clear support from Carthaginian forces. Internal division in Croton, with the nobility favoring Rome and commons leaning toward Carthage, led to a Bruttian takeover of the city, excluding the citadel held by aristocrats. 43 / 129 Croton's city walls and population were significantly reduced following Pyrrhus's invasion, with the famous temple to Lacinian Juno being more renowned than the city itself. The citadel of Croton, strategically positioned and later fortified with walls, was a holdout against sieges from internal and external forces. The Bruttians, unable to capture the Croton citadel, sought Hanno's help, leading to the Crotonians' migration to Locri under the supervision of Locrian envoys and with Hannibal's consent. In Apulia, even during winter, the Romans and Hannibal's forces engaged in skirmishes, with the Romans gaining in skill and caution. Hieronymus's accession to power in Syracuse after Hiero's death led to fear and concern among the populace, with his guardians eventually being overthrown or fleeing due to his tyrannical behavior. Hieronymus's rule marked a stark departure from his grandfather's, featuring luxury, cruelty, and a shift towards aligning with Carthage rather than Rome. An alleged conspiracy against Hieronymus results in the execution of innocents, including Thraso, which severed the last ties to the Roman alliance. Negotiations between Hieronymus and Hannibal led to an agreement that divided Sicily between Syracuse and Carthage, with Hieronymus later entertaining grander ambitions. Hieronymus's reign appeared unstable with his youthful arrogance and misguided decisions, and a plot to assassinate him was underway. 44 / 129 Dinomenes faked a shoelace issue to delay a crowd and enable an assassination attempt on the king, who was stabbed before help could arrive. Despite being injured, Dinomenes escaped, and the king's attendants fled. The chaos led Appius Claudius to alert the Senate of Sicily's potential defection to Hannibal and Carthage and he moved his troops defensively. Quintus Fabius fortified and garrisoned Puteoli, a hub of war-time exchange, and later conducted Roman elections with a focus on military expertise against Hannibal. Fabius highlighted the critical need for skilled generals in wartime and challenged the competency of Otacilius, implying the need for leadership like his own. Quintus Fabius Maximus was elected consul for the fourth time, alongside Marcus Marcellus for the third time, both being highly respected and with no concerns of a power grab in the public eye. Senate protocols were followed for the new consular year, including assigning responsibilities to the consuls and commanders in various regions. The year was rife with reports of prodigies and omens, stirring superstition and concern among the Roman people. A variety of unnatural phenomena were reported, including talking animals and bizarre visions, contributing to a heightened sense of supernatural activity in the period. 45 / 129 Full-grown sacrificial victims were used for propitiatory rites to appease the gods in Rome, followed by a period of prayer. The Roman Senate decided to deploy a total of eighteen legions for war efforts, detailing their distribution and the need for six new ones to be enlisted. To support naval forces, an edict required citizens with assets in certain ranges to furnish sailors and pay, marking the first instance where private individuals funded a Roman fleet. Hannibal's move towards Campania prompted fears of a siege on Capua, leading to a delegation sent to him for military support. Hannibal’s intention to capture Tarentum was driven by its strategic location and resources, facing Macedonia, which would be beneficial for King Philip's possible invasion. After a failed attempt to surprise the garrison at Puteoli, Hannibal's forces prompted an invitation from the disaffected commons of Nola, but Roman consul Marcellus preempted their plans. The consul Fabius planned to attack Casilinum, and at Beneventum, forces under Gracchus and Hanno moved into strategic positions, with Gracchus inspiring his troops by promising freedom in exchange for victory in battle. A battle near Beneventum ensued, where Roman soldiers initially focused on collecting enemy heads as tokens for freedom, but were ordered to focus on the fight, leading to a vigorous and successful engagement against the Carthaginian forces. 46 / 129 The Romans won a decisive battle against the Carthaginians, capturing or killing nearly all of Hanno's force except for fewer than two thousand who escaped, including Hanno himself. The Romans awarded their troops with the spoils of victory, and unfulfilled slave-volunteers feared punishment, retreating to a nearby hill. Proconsul Gracchus, after honoring veteran soldiers, granted freedom to the slave-volunteers, resulting in celebrations and gratitude towards him and Rome. A festive event in Beneventum honored the victorious soldiers with public feasting, later commemorated in Rome with a painting in the temple of Liberty. Hannibal moved against Nola but faced setbacks, with Marcellus foiling his plans and inflicting significant casualties, signaling a tacit admission of defeat from Hannibal as he withdrew to Tarentum. Roman domestic affairs focused on moral regulation, with the censors punishing those who failed to uphold state interests or tried to exploit loopholes in oaths, resulting in a decree sending them to serve in Sicily. Despite the empty treasury, public contracts for religious and civic duties continued, with private citizens refusing payment until after the war, showing strong support for the state. The Roman military exhibited a strong sense of duty, with higher-ranked soldiers refusing pay, deeming those who accepted it as mercenaries. The siege of Casilinum led to a strategic debate between consuls Fabius and Marcellus, ultimately resulting in a brutal takeover of the town by the Romans and refusal of safe passage to the Campanians, ending in a massacre. 47 / 129 Campanians sought protection from Fabius during the Roman campaign and were escorted to Capua. Casilinum was captured, and prisoners were sent to Rome and distributed among neighboring communities. Roman cohorts, caught off guard by Hanno in Lucania, suffered heavy losses before Hanno retreated to Bruttium. Consuls Marcellus and Fabius conducted military operations in Samnium and Apulia, devastating lands and capturing towns, with severe punishment for deserters. Hannibal reached Tarentum but did not attack, hoping to win over the Tarentines without resorting to destruction. Hannibal used Salapia as a base for winter and conducted raids in the region, acquiring horses for his troops. In Sicily, unrest followed the assassination of Hieronymus, with Syracuse’s citizens rallying for liberty and securing strategic positions in the city. Adranodorus and his wife Damarata debated how to respond to the citizens' demands, ultimately opting to yield to public sentiment. Adranodorus surrendered control to the council and people, pleading for unity to maintain liberty in Syracuse. The assassination of Hieronymus led to the election of new officials, including those involved in his death, aiming for a free and peaceful Syracuse. 48 / 129 Sopater and Dinomenes were elected in their absence and transferred the royal treasure to Syracuse. The wall dividing the Island and the city was removed as part of the move toward free institutions. Hippocrates and Epicydes, after being deserted by their troops, returned to Syracuse and requested an escort to Locri, claiming to be messengers from Hannibal. Their request was granted, but suspicions arose as they engaged with the soldiers and the lower classes, hinting at a secret plan to hand over Syracuse to the Romans. Adranodorus, influenced by his wife, contemplated seizing power during the political unrest, but his plot was revealed by an actor named Aristo, leading to his and his co-conspirator's assassination by the council. The exposure of Adranodorus and Themistus’s bodies quelled public unrest. Sopater accused the princesses of being the driving force behind the men’s ambitions, resulting in a decree for the execution of the royal family. Heraclia, another daughter of Hiero, and her children were killed despite her appeals for exile, not death. The death of Heraclia’s children was met with public remorse due to a belated change in sentiment. The public’s anger led to a demand for new elections, resulting in the surprising election of Hippocrates and Epicydes as magistrates. Hippocrates and Epicydes were reluctantly recognized by the council due to fear of an uprising, despite their known anger towards the negotiations with the Romans. 49 / 129 Romans had a fleet at Murgantia and were monitoring the unstable situation in Syracuse after recent disturbances. Marcellus arrived in Sicily, considering an agreement with Syracuse possible, and sent delegates to renew a treaty with the city. Syracuse was in turmoil with Carthaginian forces nearby, which emboldened dissenters Hippocrates and Epicydes, causing further conflict. Apollonides, a leading Syracusan, argued for unity and choosing a side between Rome and Carthage to avoid internal strife. The debate in Syracuse was heated, but ultimately, a decision was made for peace with Rome, and envoys were dispatched to finalize a treaty. Hippocrates and mercenaries were sent to Leontini, which provided a release valve for the tension in Syracuse but led to further conflicts. Hippocrates launched attacks against Roman territories, which led to Roman demands for the expulsion of Hippocrates and Epicydes from Syracuse. Epicydes furthered tensions in Leontini, resisting Syracuse's peace with Rome and asserting Leontini's desire for autonomy. Marcellus captured Leontini with strong military action after being provoked by the attacks on Roman guards. Reports of Roman atrocities in Leontini sparked fear and unrest in Syracuse, though they were later found to be exaggerated. Syracusan forces hesitated to aid Leontini due to these reports, and their leaders contemplated aggressive actions. Epicydes and Hippocrates sought protection from Cretan soldiers, leveraging their past alliances. The appearance of Hippocrates and Epicydes caused dissent among the Syracusan troops, leading to threats to the commanders. A fake letter, supposedly from Syracusan commanders to Marcellus, incited further mutiny, causing the commanders to flee and leaving the mercenaries in a powerful position. 50 / 129 Hostages were used to win support and spread false narratives in Syracuse. A false story, backed by bribes, ignited anger in Syracuse against Roman forces. Syracusans were divided; some despised Rome, while others feared internal threats more. Despite attempts by magistrates to maintain control, the city's gates were breached by hostile forces. Syracuse fell quickly once the gates were opened, and the leaders sought refuge in Achradina. After a brief experience of freedom, Syracuse returned to tyranny under Hippocrates and Epicydes. Roman forces moved to Syracuse and began siege operations both by land and sea. Diplomatic efforts by Rome were rebuffed by the new Syracusan generals. Archimedes’ ingenious defenses inflicted heavy damage on the Roman siege forces. A naval assault on Syracuse failed due to Archimedes' countermeasures. The Roman council of war decided to switch to a blockade after failed assault attempts. Marcellus took back several towns that shifted allegiance in the chaos. Himilco landed a significant Carthaginian force in Sicily, raising the morale of the Syracusan forces. The Syracusan army was caught off-guard by Roman forces while trying to fortify a camp near Acrillae. 51 / 129 Marcellus returned to Syracuse to check on the Sicilians, who were showing signs of defecting from the Roman cause. Carthaginian and Roman forces were heavily focused on Sicily, with large fleets and legions landing and moving through the region. Himilco and Bomilcar, Carthaginian commanders, had different outcomes: Himilco was unsuccessful in engaging the Romans, and Bomilcar retreated to Africa due to inferior naval strength and resource shortages. Murgantia and other Sicilian towns began to revolt against Roman control, influenced by the success of the Carthaginians. The Roman commander at Henna, Lucius Pinarius, took severe measures to retain control, resulting in a massacre at an assembly and securing the town by what was considered a necessary act of brutality. The massacre at Henna had repercussions, pushing other undecided Sicilian towns to side with Carthage. Roman operations in Sicily concluded with strategic fortifications and a shift in command, as Marcellus focused on the blockade of Syracuse. Concurrently, a war with King Philip of Macedonia began as he captured Oricum, prompting Roman praetor Marcus Valerius Laevinus to recapture the town with a swift naval operation. 52 / 129 Envoys from Apollonia requested Roman assistance against a Macedonian siege; Valerius sent 2,000 men led by Quintus Naevius Crista, who managed a surprise attack and took over the Macedonian camp, leading to significant Macedonian losses and the capture of their siege equipment. The Roman fleet, under Marcus Valerius, prevented King Philip of Macedonia's escape by sea, forcing him to return overland to Macedonia with a diminished and disarmed force. In Spain, Publius Cornelius Scipio responded quickly to a Carthaginian victory, securing Roman positions and gaining the upper hand in subsequent battles, which included successful engagements against the Carthaginians and the relief of Roman-allied towns under siege. The Carthaginians suffered heavy losses in multiple encounters, with the Romans capturing towns and war spoils, and Gnaeus Scipio proving instrumental in these successes despite suffering a wound. Saguntum, the town that sparked the Second Punic War, was recaptured by the Romans after seven years under Carthaginian control, and the Turdetani were subdued and sold into slavery. Political strife occurred in Rome with the tribune Marcus Metellus accusing the censors of misconduct, but they were released from trial by the support of other tribunes. Military and civil appointments for the year included Quintus Fabius Maximus and Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus as consuls, and the introduction of stage plays during a festival is noted as a cultural milestone. The Romans prepared for further war efforts with detailed strategic assignments for various generals and troop enrollments, showcasing the extensive Roman military and administrative planning. Ominous signs and prodigies reported in Rome led to ceremonial expiations before the consuls departed to engage in campaigns against Hannibal in Lucania and Apulia. 53 / 129 The Roman consul, respecting his father's status, dismounted his horse only after being ordered by a lictor, demonstrating the father's test of the son's recognition of his own authority. Dasius Altinius of Arpi sought to betray his town to the Romans, revealing the lack of trust by both sides due to his prior defection to Hannibal and now attempting to return to the Roman side. The elder Fabius argued against punishing Altinius, suggesting instead to detain him to prevent dissuading other potential defectors and maintain ally morale, reflecting strategic leniency in times of war. Altinius, under house arrest in Cales, stirred confusion in Arpi upon his disappearance, which led to his family's execution by Hannibal who also seized Altinius’s wealth, showing the brutal consequences of perceived treachery. Consul Fabius captured Arpi by attacking its least guarded, yet strongest, point during a storm, exploiting the weather and the element of surprise. Dialogue between Romans and Arpinis during the battle led to the Arpinis switching sides, showcasing the complex loyalties during war. Campanian noblemen sought assurance from Romans for the restoration of their property once Capua was recaptured, indicating the politicking within occupied territories. Successes in Spain by the Scipios led to an alliance with Numidian prince Syphax, who sought Roman military training to improve his infantry, underscoring the international implications of the Punic Wars. Syphax’s newfound trust in his infantry, trained by a Roman centurion, resulted in victory over Carthaginian forces and influenced Numidian desertions to the Romans, demonstrating the effectiveness of Roman military organization. 54 / 129 A pact of friendship was formed between Syphax and the Romans, leading to alarm among the Carthaginians. Carthaginian envoys persuaded Gala, ruler of another Numidian section, to join them against Syphax, resulting in Syphax's defeat by Gala's son Masinissa. Syphax amassed a new army after his defeat but was again bested by Masinissa without Carthaginian aid. In Spain, Romans employed Celtiberian mercenaries for the first time and attempted to sway Spanish nobles in Hannibal's army to defect. Hannibal remained near Tarentum, gaining some Italian communities' allegiance, while Rome regained loyalty from others. A wave of superstition and foreign cults spread in Rome, prompting Senate intervention to restore traditional religious practices. Several high-ranking priests died, leading to new appointments within the religious hierarchy of Rome. Rome conducted its consular elections, with notable occurrences such as Scipio defying age restrictions due to popular demand. The new consuls and praetors took their positions, with tasks including military operations against Hannibal and administrative duties in various regions. Twenty-three legions were raised for the year, despite challenges, including a scandal involving fraudulent tax-farmers. 55 / 129 Extreme weather phenomena were occurring, including stones raining on the Alban Mount and lightning strikes damaging buildings and killing sentries. To counteract these omens, a day of public prayer was held, followed by a series of religious observances over nine days. The long-anticipated revolt of Tarentum was triggered by the escape of hostages facilitated by Phileas, who had been staying in Rome. Phileas managed to convince the hostages from Tarentum and Thurii to escape, but they were later recaptured and executed, which caused resentment among the Greek settlements in Italy. A conspiracy formed by young Tarentine nobles led to a secret alliance with Hannibal, who promised Tarentum autonomy in exchange for its defection from Rome. The conspirators coordinated with Hannibal to gain access to the city, which involved regular cattle raids to lower suspicion and the use of a known huntsman, Philemenus, for comings and goings during night times. Hannibal meticulously planned the assault on Tarentum, using a mix of deception and coordination with the Tarentine conspirators to capture the city with minimal initial conflict. The attack created chaos and confusion, with the local population and the Roman garrison each believing the other was responsible for the disorder. Once in control, Hannibal assured the Tarentines of his goodwill, exploited to separate Roman residences for looting, and commanded the marking of houses for protection. A failed attempt by Hannibal to capture the citadel led to the construction of a barrier to isolate it from the city and a strategic skirmish with the Roman forces. 57 / 129 The Romans were overwhelmed by Hannibal’s forces, leading to a chaotic retreat. Hannibal facilitated the construction of defensive structures in Tarentum without much resistance post-battle. A small Carthaginian garrison was left in Tarentum, and Hannibal moved his main forces five miles away. Hannibal considered assaulting the citadel of Tarentum but realized it was fortified and accessible by sea, making a siege impractical. The Tarentines, at Hannibal's suggestion, moved their ships by land to bypass Roman sea control. Hannibal's innovative strategy to move ships impressed the Tarentines and swiftly changed the naval dynamic. A historical debate exists regarding the exact year of the Tarentum revolt, with most sources indicating it was the year being described. Roman officials were delayed by religious festivals before they could attend to military duties. Prophecies found during a Senate-ordered search caused concern and led to religious rites and the establishment of the Festival of Apollo, intended to secure victory, not health. Hannibal remained near Tarentum while the consuls were poised to besiege Capua, which was already facing food shortages. Hannibal ordered grain supplies to be brought to Capua, and despite the Campanians' lackluster response, a second attempt was arranged. The consul Fulvius learned of the situation and planned a surprise attack on Hanno's camp near Beneventum. Fulvius's attack faced difficulties due to the camp’s high ground, and after considerable losses, he decided to retreat. 58 / 129 The Roman troops overcame the initial hesitance of their consul and successfully stormed the enemy camp, demonstrating valor and tactical acumen. Significant casualties and captures were inflicted upon the enemy, and valuable resources were secured, which were then disbursed or sold by the Roman consuls. Campanians sought Hannibal's aid fearing the proximity of the Roman consuls to Capua, prompting Hannibal to send reinforcements. Roman forces focused on the citadel in Tarentum, where an influx of supplies strengthened the besieged Romans and turned the tide against the enemy. The betrayal and strategic maneuvers in the region of Thurii led to the Roman forces being outwitted and the town falling to the Carthaginians. The consuls aimed to strike at Capua to punish its defection and erase the stain on Roman honor, calling for reinforcements to prepare for any response from Hannibal. A series of ominous signs during a sacrifice foreshadowed misfortune for the Roman commander Gracchus. Lucanian leader Flavus, after switching allegiance to Hannibal, conspired to betray and trap the Roman commander Gracchus through deceit and a planned ambush. 59 / 129 Gracchus fell into a trap and was killed in Lucania, as narrated by various, sometimes conflicting, historical accounts. Accounts of Gracchus’s death vary, with some saying he died near the river Calor, and others stating he died performing rites to expiate evil omens. Discrepancies exist regarding the place and manner of Gracchus's death and funeral; some say he was buried by his troops, while others claim Hannibal honored him with a pyre and ceremonies. A skirmish between the Romans and the forces from Capua led by Mago resulted in over 1,500 Roman losses. Roman morale was boosted when Titus Quinctius Crispinus defeated the Campanian Badius in single combat. Hannibal offered battle near Capua, which led to an inconclusive engagement with the Romans. The consuls attempted to draw Hannibal away from Capua by splitting their forces and marching in different directions. Marcus Centennius Paenula, a former centurion, was defeated and killed by Hannibal after being granted troops by the Senate to challenge the Carthaginian. The consuls resumed the siege of Capua with renewed efforts and prepared necessary supplies and equipment for the operation. 60 / 129 Grain reserves were stored at Casilinum and along the coast at strategic locations to support the Roman army through winter. Hannibal remained vigilant for opportunities to exploit Roman weaknesses, while Roman leadership showed signs of complacency and indiscipline. The Roman army suffered a severe defeat due to lax discipline and the underestimation of Hannibal, leading to significant losses. Despite setbacks, Roman morale was upheld by the successes of the consuls, and efforts were made to prevent further desertions and to manage the aftermath of defeats. Appius Claudius and Fulvius made strategic preparations for the siege of Capua, with multiple Roman armies coordinating their efforts. Capua sent a delegation to Hannibal seeking assistance as the Roman siege tightened, but Hannibal's response was non-committal. The Roman Senate offered terms to the Campanians before the final siege, which were arrogantly rejected. Hannibal moved to Brundisium after failing to take Tarentum, and although Capua reached out for aid, he could not prevent the Roman encirclement. The siege of Syracuse concluded successfully for the Romans due to a combination of military efforts and internal betrayal within Syracuse. Marcellus used diplomacy and intelligence, including the capture of an important figure and the assessment of the city walls, to end the siege of Syracuse through a combination of tactics and subterfuge. 61 / 129 The Romans stealthily scaled the walls of Syracuse, capitalizing on the inebriation of the guards after a festival. Upon breaching the Hexapylon gate and being spotted, the Romans ceased stealth and engaged in overt combat to spread fear. The surprised and unprepared Syracusans, led by Epicydes, initially attempted to counter the Roman invasion but eventually retreated to Achradina. The Roman commander, Marcellus, reflected on the history and beauty of Syracuse with mixed emotions but resolved to attempt its preservation. Marcellus's peace negotiation attempts failed due to mistrust and fear of retribution among the Syracusans. Roman troops controlled looting in Syracuse under Marcellus’s strict orders, sparing the lives of free citizens. Marcellus strategically took control of the fortress Euryalus, securing the Roman position and preparing to besiege Achradina. A Carthaginian relief fleet, despite initial success, faced setbacks due to adverse weather conditions. Both Roman and Carthaginian armies were severely affected by a plague, with high fatalities on both sides. After the Carthaginian army was decimated by the plague, Sicilian allies captured towns near Syracuse, bolstering defenses and seeking aid from Carthage. Carthage responded by sending a substantial fleet to support Syracuse, but adverse winds stalled their approach, leading to uncertainty for both sides. 62 / 129 Bomilcar avoided naval engagement with the Romans due to unfavorable winds, despite having a stronger fleet. Marcellus aimed to prevent Bomilcar from supplying Syracuse, choosing to challenge the Carthaginians despite having fewer ships. Upon the Carthaginians' retreat, the Sicilian troops sought to negotiate surrender terms with Marcellus, aiming to maintain their liberty and laws. The envoys from the Sicilian troops convinced the people of Syracuse to overthrow the officers left by Epicydes, seeking a peaceful agreement with the Romans. A new government was formed in Syracuse, which immediately initiated peace talks with Marcellus. Marcellus was persuaded to preserve the city of Syracuse for its historical and cultural value rather than destroy it. Deserters and mercenaries, fearing for their safety, caused an uprising in Syracuse, which led to the appointment of new leaders and further turmoil. A Spanish soldier among the Roman auxiliaries successfully convinced Moericus, a prefect in Syracuse, to consider allying with the Romans. Moericus collaborated with the Romans to allow them to capture strategic points of Syracuse by deceiving his own forces. Marcellus avoided the plunder of royal treasures in Syracuse after its partial capture and sought a peaceful surrender of the city. In the end, Marcellus offered leniency to Syracuse, acknowledging both the city's historic friendship and its recent adversarial actions under tyrannical rule. 63 / 129 Marcellus was distressed by the unintended killing of Archimedes by his soldiers during the sacking of Syracuse, which led to the proper burial of Archimedes and respect for his family. The fall of Syracuse yielded almost as much booty as if Carthage had fallen, greatly benefiting Rome. Titus Otacilius successfully raided Utica, capturing numerous merchant vessels with grain, preventing a serious famine in Syracuse. In Spain, Roman commanders decided to take decisive action after two years of preparation rather than actual fighting, aiming to conclude the Spanish war. The Romans were reinforced by 20,000 Celtiberian troops, and they planned to first attack Hasdrubal son of Hamilcar. The Romans divided their forces, with Publius Scipio and Gnaeus Scipio taking different command routes to engage the Carthaginians. Hasdrubal negotiated with the Celtiberians, who then deserted the Roman side, showing the risk of relying on foreign auxiliaries without a strong native Roman force. Publius Scipio encountered difficulties with the aggressive tactics of Masinissa's Numidian cavalry, leading to a strategic retreat. Publius Scipio was killed in a battle after a two-front engagement, which caused a significant defeat for the Roman forces. The Carthaginian commanders quickly capitalized on their victory, joining Hasdrubal son of Hamilcar, which led to increased morale and a stronger position. Gnaeus Scipio, sensing a pending doom and increased enemy forces, decided to retreat to avoid confrontation. Despite the retreat, the Numidians caught up with the Roman forces, leading to another battle where the Romans had to defend themselves while continuing their retreat. Scipio’s troops took a defensive position on a hill, but the terrain offered no advantage, leaving them in a vulnerable situation against the Carthaginians. 64 / 129 The Romans constructed makeshift fortifications from their packs and gear to form a rampart-like structure. Carthaginian forces easily ascended the hill and were initially taken aback by the Romans' improvised defenses but soon attacked, mocking the Romans’ weak barricade. A considerable number of Romans escaped to lieutenant Fonteius’ camp after Gnaeus Scipio's position was overrun by the Carthaginians. Accounts differ on Gnaeus Scipio's death, with some saying he died in the initial attack while others suggest he perished in a tower after it was set on fire by the enemy. Spain and Rome deeply mourned the loss of the Scipio brothers, with Gnaeus particularly remembered for his justice and moderation. Lucius Marcius, a Roman knight, assumed leadership and revived Roman spirits, rallying the remnants of the defeated armies along with reinforcements. Marcius’ leadership was well-received, leading to unanimous support from the troops for his election as commander. Despite initial despair, Marcius’ speech and the immediate threat of attack transformed the Roman soldiers’ grief into a fighting rage, leading to a successful surprise attack on the Carthaginians. Marcius strategically refrained from pursuing the Carthaginians too aggressively after the initial victory to avoid unnecessary risks. The Carthaginians underestimated the Romans due to their previous defeats, which Marcius planned to exploit by launching a surprise attack on their camp. Marcius’ plan involved a bold and unexpected night attack, banking on the Carthaginians’ lack of vigilance. The Romans faced an urgent need to act before the Carthaginian armies could regroup, with Marcius emphasizing the necessity of seizing the fleeting opportunity for a counterattack. 65 / 129 Roman troops were invigorated by the audacious plan proposed by their new commander and spent their day preparing and resting for a night attack. Two Carthaginian camps were overtaken by the Romans in a surprise night attack led by Lucius Marcius, leading to significant Carthaginian losses. Various historical sources differ on the details of the Carthaginian losses and the events, but all concur on the effectiveness of Marcius's leadership. A notable silver shield with a portrait of Hasdrubal was among the spoils, later hung in the Capitoline temple until it was destroyed by fire. Marcellus is credited with the honorable settlement in Sicily post-Syracuse capture and for starting the Roman appreciation for Greek art, although his actions also began the trend of art spoliation. The Romans faced further conflicts in Sicily with persistent opposition, including commanders Epicydes, Hanno, and Muttines, a renowned Libyphoenician general. Marcellus achieved a decisive victory with the help of Numidian defectors, concluding his military campaigns in Sicily successfully. At the close of the year, Roman Senate instructed the praetor to send orders to consuls regarding new magistrates' elections, leading to the appointment of new consuls and praetors with specific duties and extended military commands. The new consuls initiated discussions on national security and the ongoing war, deciding to continue the previous consuls' commands and focus on the siege of Capua. 66 / 129 Romans prioritized recapturing Capua as they believed it would sway other communities back to their side. Praetors from the previous year had their commands extended to maintain stability in Etruria, Gaul, and Sicily. Additional legions and directives were given for the military campaigns in Sicily, Sardinia, and along the Sicilian and Greek seaboards. A total of twenty-five legions were on service that year by land and sea. The Senate was offended by Lucius Marcius referring to himself as ‘pro-praetor’ without official appointment, considering it a dangerous precedent. A dispute arose over the handling of Gnaeus Fulvius's failure in Apulia, with some calling for severe punishment due to his perceived negligence and the poor discipline of his troops. Fulvius tried to defend himself by blaming the soldiers' lack of courage and the inevitable flow of battle for the defeat. Despite being accused and publicly criticized, Fulvius avoided capital punishment by going into exile voluntarily. Capua was under intense siege by the Romans, leading to starvation within the city and desperate attempts for aid from Hannibal. Innovative military tactics were developed by the Romans during the siege, including a combination of infantry and cavalry, which proved effective against the Campanians. Hannibal was torn between aiding Capua and seizing the citadel at Tarentum, ultimately choosing to focus on Capua due to its symbolic and strategic importance. 67 / 129 Hannibal left his heavy armament behind for speed and marched with a select force and 33 elephants towards Campania. He successfully took the fort of Calatia, then aimed to support Capua against the Roman siege by coordinating an attack with sallying Campanian forces. The Romans, led by Appius Claudius and Fulvius, divided their forces to confront the threats from Hannibal and the Campanians respectively. Intense battle ensued, with the Romans managing to defend against the attacks, including a moment where Roman centurion Navius boldly rallied his troops to repel the Spaniards. Despite heavy resistance and setbacks, including the wounding of Appius Claudius, the Romans succeeded in causing significant casualties to Hannibal’s forces and the Campanians. As a result of this battle, Hannibal decided to move his army away from Capua, fearing the new consuls might cut off his supplies. Hannibal considered and then executed a daring plan to march on Rome, hoping to draw Roman forces away from Capua. The Roman Senate, upon learning of Hannibal’s march towards Rome, debated their response, ultimately deciding on a compromise between recalling all forces for Rome’s defense and continuing the siege of Capua. Quintus Fulvius, the proconsul, organized a force to head towards Rome to bolster its defenses while ensuring that Capua remained under siege. 68 / 129 Hannibal's strategic movements through various territories including the Latin Way and near Rome caused panic and chaos among the Roman populace. Fulvius encountered challenges due to Hannibal's tactics but managed to lead his army smoothly towards Rome, bolstering the city's defenses. Hannibal's proximity to Rome led to heightened security measures, including the deployment of Roman magistrates and senators to strategic locations for rapid consultation and decision-making. Fulvius and Roman forces effectively managed multiple panic outbreaks within the city caused by misunderstandings and false alarms. The Roman Senate took extraordinary measures, granting extensive military authority to former high-ranking officials to maintain order. Hannibal surveyed Rome's defenses closely but faced supernatural obstacles like storms, which both sides interpreted as divine intervention, preventing a decisive battle. Despite his powerful position near Rome, Hannibal's attempts to capture the city were thwarted by factors including the sale of land he occupied and Roman troop movements unnoticed by him. The desecration of the temple at the Grove of Feronia highlighted Hannibal's campaign's impact on religious sites and the local economy. Hannibal's focus shifted away from defending Capua, leading to rapid movements through Italy that caught many by surprise. Capua's siege continued with increasing hopelessness among the Campanian leaders, while Carthaginian commanders expressed dismay at Hannibal's strategies in letters. The Roman commitment to maintaining the siege of Capua contrasted sharply with Hannibal's perceived inconstancy and strategic shifts. 69 / 129 Numidian spies pretending to be deserters were discovered and punished by the Romans, their hands cut off and sent back to Capua. The harsh punishment of the Numidians demoralized the Campanians, leading to chaos and a forced council meeting by the populace. At the council, Vibius Virrius advocated for an honorable death over the anticipated Roman tortures and humiliations after surrender. A group of senators joined Virrius in a final dinner where they consumed poison to escape the expected retribution from Rome. The majority of the Capuan council voted to surrender to the Romans, and Capua's gates were opened to the Roman legions. Roman commanders collected all weapons and seized wealth from Capua, putting the city’s senators under arrest. The Roman commanders Fulvius and Claudius disagreed on the severity of punishment for the Capuan senators. Fulvius acted decisively, executing the Capuan senators at Teanum and Cales before a letter from Rome could arrive to possibly prevent the executions. A Campanian man, Vibellius Taurea, committed suicide in front of Fulvius after being unable to be executed due to a Senate decree, having already killed his family to spare them from shame. 70 / 129 Fulvius made unilateral decisions regarding executions during the surrender of Capua, claiming his interpretation of a Senate decree authorized him to act on his own judgment. After the surrender, Atella and Calatia were captured, with the execution of their leaders, incarceration of the Campanian elite, and the enslavement of other citizens. A debate in Rome on Capua's fate led to the decision against its complete destruction due to the value of its land; Capua was left with no political body or military authority. Rome appeared as a merciful conqueror by sparing Capua, distributing its land, and maintaining it as a city for residence only, devoid of any political structure. Gaius Nero was given command of a force for a military expedition to Spain, where he faced Hasdrubal, who tricked him and escaped a trap through a delay tactic. The Roman Senate was concerned about the situation in Spain and the selection of a new commander, leading to Publius Cornelius Scipio's election despite his youth and the tragic fate of his family in Spain. Scipio's election was followed by doubt due to his age, but he reassured the populace, using both his personal charisma and hints of divine favor to inspire confidence. Additional forces were assembled for the Spanish campaign, and Scipio was provided with a fleet to transport them, reflecting Rome's strategic emphasis on Spain. 71 / 129 Scipio confidently addressed the concerns of allied representatives in Tarraco and praised his troops for their resilience after defeats. Scipio made a point of treating Marcius with respect and managed the transition of command to Silanus smoothly. The Carthaginians, sensing Scipio's strong reputation, felt a causeless foreboding and wintered in various locations. A Carthaginian fleet from Sicily had attempted to blockade Roman supplies at Tarentum, but its presence proved more problematic for both sides. Marcellus was denied a triumph in Rome but was granted an 'ovation' and celebrated his victories with a procession featuring spoils and captives. Roman citizenship and land were awarded to individuals who had helped in the Roman cause, highlighting the strategic use of incentives. A Carthaginian force landed in Sicily, causing several towns to revolt, but Roman praetor Cornelius managed to restore order. The Senate decided that one consul should focus on Macedonia, while Roman election procedures demonstrated a high regard for precedent and dignity. The election process in Rome was marked by a respect for seniority and a commitment to selecting experienced leaders. The praetorship elections concluded, and the Senate decreed the Games of Apollo to be an annual event in perpetuity. 72 / 129 Numerous prodigies and omens were reported across Roman territories, leading to public prayers and sacrifices to expiate these signs. Several high-ranking priests in Rome died, necessitating the appointment of new ones. Laevinus initiated a naval expedition to Aetolia and secured an alliance with promises of mutual support against Philip of Macedonia. The Aetolians were promised the return of Acarnanian territories and were allowed to invite other states into the alliance with Rome. Terms of the Roman-Aetolian alliance were detailed and included division of conquered lands and clauses for future peace with Philip. The alliance terms were later recorded on sacred sites, with a two-year delay due to the Aetolian envoys' extended stay in Rome. Philip of Macedonia reacted to the Aetolian revolt by conducting swift military campaigns in neighboring regions to secure his rear. The Acarnanians prepared to defend against the Aetolian invasion with strong patriotic resolve and appeals for support to neighboring Epirus. Laevinus, newly appointed as consul, conducted successful sieges in Locris, capturing Anticyra and handing it over to the Aetolians. Marcellus, another Roman consul, displayed restraint by refraining from Senate decisions in his colleague's absence, amidst complaints against him from Sicilians. A large fire broke out in Rome, affecting several key commercial and residential areas, causing widespread concern and disruption. 73 / 129 The shrine of Vesta was nearly destroyed by fire, believed to be set deliberately. A slave named Manus provided information leading to the arrest of the fire's conspirators, receiving freedom and a reward as a result. The people of Capua, fearing total ruin by Roman authorities, pleaded for mercy, which was influenced by past enmity and accusations of betrayal. Consul Laevinus responded to Capua's plight by demanding an oath of return before allowing them to plead to the Senate in Rome. In the Senate, discussions about military distributions and command responsibilities were held, with strategic decisions made about legion deployments and provincial commands. Sicily and the fleet were assigned to Marcellus, Italy and the war against Hannibal to Laevinus, through a draw that greatly upset the Sicilians who feared Marcellus's return. The Senate, moved by the situation and after an unprecedented agreement, allowed the consuls to exchange their provinces privately. Marcellus, who had a history of combat success against Hannibal, was seen as being drawn into a fate that would eventually lead to his death at Hannibal's hands. The envoys from Sicily presented their grievances to the Senate, emphasizing their loyalty to Rome and unjust treatment by Marcellus. Laevinus allowed the envoys to be present to hear Marcellus's defense, which he gave, asserting that he would not defend himself against accusations from those he had defeated on behalf of Rome. 74 / 129 Marcellus defends his actions in Syracuse by arguing that his conduct was justified by the laws of war and the city's rebellion against Rome. The Senate debates the Sicilian envoys' demands and ultimately endorses Marcellus's actions, resolving to support Syracuse's interests without harming Rome. Marcellus is depicted as magnanimous, agreeing to take the Syracusans under his protection despite their previous opposition. The Capuan envoys present their case to the Senate, acknowledging their deserved punishment but pleading for mercy for the remaining nobles. Marcus Atilius Regulus's testimony leads the Senate to consult the Roman people, who grant the Senate authority to decide Capua's fate. The Senate makes specific rulings on various Capuan individuals and families, imposing a mix of property confiscations, slavery, imprisonment, and territorial reassignments. The Capuans are assigned new living areas with restrictions on property ownership and civic rights, marking a significant demotion in status. Following the judgments, recruitment for military service begins, indicating the continuation of Rome's military efforts. 75 / 129 The Roman consuls faced a crisis due to a shortage of oarsmen and funds, leading to a public outcry and threats of a popular uprising. An edict requiring citizens to provide oarsmen and their pay resulted in widespread anger and indignation among the people, who felt excessively burdened by taxation and exploitation. The consuls proposed that senators lead by example by donating their own wealth to fund the fleet, which was met with enthusiastic public response and resolved the issue of the oarsmen's shortage. The historical narrative depicts fluctuating fortunes in the Roman and Carthaginian conflict, with each side experiencing victories and setbacks. The strategic town of Salapia was at the center of a betrayal plot, with its ultimate surrender to the Romans marking a significant loss for Hannibal. The loss of a key Numidian cavalry squadron in Salapia was a strategic blow to Hannibal, compromising his advantage in cavalry strength. Supply shortages at the citadel of Tarentum put the Roman garrison at risk, but efforts to secure passage from Sicily aimed to alleviate this. A naval confrontation near Tarentum between Roman and Tarentine ships was poised to occur, with the outcome not detailed in this excerpt. 76 / 129 The Tarentines and Romans engaged fiercely at sea, each with significant stakes: the Tarentines aiming to cut off supplies to the Roman citadel by sea, and the Romans fighting to maintain their foothold. The naval battle was intense, with ships locked in combat, close-quarter fighting, and personal duels, including one in which the Roman Quinctius was killed by a Tarentine named Nico. Despite initial resistance, the Roman fleet was eventually overcome and fled, resulting in many ships being sunk or captured. On land, the Romans succeeded in defeating Tarentine foragers, balancing the victories at sea and on land between the two sides. Consul Laevinus arrived in Sicily, bringing stability to Syracuse and then focusing on Agrigentum, which was under Carthaginian control. Through treachery initiated by Muttines, a disenfranchised Carthaginian commander, the Romans were able to capture Agrigentum, with the Carthaginian commander Hanno and his men fleeing to Africa. Following the victory at Agrigentum, numerous Sicilian towns shifted allegiance to Rome, with Laevinus establishing order and promoting agriculture. Laevinus removed problematic individuals from Sicily, sending 4,000 individuals known for lawlessness to assist in Rhegium. In Spain, Scipio revitalized Roman efforts, encouraged his troops by reminding them of their past resilience, and prepared to push the Carthaginians out of the region. Scipio motivated his soldiers by highlighting the Roman spirit that had previously led to comebacks from defeats in major wars, infusing a sense of optimism and determination to reverse the tide in Spain. 77 / 129 Arpi has been recaptured, and Capua has fallen to Roman forces, driving Hannibal to Bruttium. Scipio urges his soldiers to continue their efforts, citing previous Roman successes and favorable omens and prophecies for their campaign in Spain. Scipio plans to attack New Carthage, a strategically important city holding Carthaginian money, hostages, and supplies. The town of New Carthage is described in detail, emphasizing its location and defenses. Scipio leaves Silanus to guard the Ebro with a portion of the army, while crossing with the main force to engage the Carthaginians. Despite suggestions from his officers, Scipio opts not to engage the scattered Carthaginian forces directly but to focus on seizing New Carthage. A covert operation is described with only Laelius aware of the true objective, to synchronize a naval and land assault on New Carthage. Scipio fortifies positions around New Carthage and prepares his troops for a siege, assuring them of the town's wealth and strategic importance. Mago, the Carthaginian commander, prepares the defense of New Carthage, positioning troops strategically within the town. Initial Roman assault attempts face challenges due to the town's strong defenses and result in a tactical withdrawal to reassess. Scipio discovers a potential weak point in New Carthage's defenses via the lagoon and plans an attack there. Scipio inspires his troops by attributing their passage across the lagoon to divine intervention, urging them to follow Neptune to victory. The Roman assault faces difficulties due to the height of the walls and the intensity of the Carthaginian defense. 78 / 129 Scipio's troops faced little resistance entering New Carthage due to lax defenses and inattentive guards. The town fell to the Romans with surprise attacks from multiple directions, causing panic among defenders. After seizing the town, the Romans captured 10,000 free males, treated various captives differently based on their status, and collected immense plunder. Scipio showed clemency to the citizens of New Carthage, releasing them and allowing them to retain some property. A large amount of war material was captured, including artillery and ships, contributing to the Roman war effort. Scipio and his troops rested after their victory, then held an assembly where he praised the gods and his soldiers for their achievements. There was a dispute over who deserved the mural crown for valor, leading to the potential for mutiny, which Scipio resolved by awarding the honor to both claimants. Historical records are inconsistent about the details of the siege and its aftermath, with variations in numbers and names. Scipio's treatment of hostages and prisoners showed Roman values, aiming to win loyalty rather than rule by fear. Scipio demonstrated respect and protection for female hostages, particularly emphasizing decency towards young noblewomen. The story of a beautiful captive betrothed to Allucius is introduced, showcasing Scipio's personal diplomacy and consideration. 79 / 129 Scipio displays generous diplomacy by returning a young bride to her fiancé, Allucius, without ransom, instead asking for friendship with Rome as the only payment. Overjoyed by Scipio’s kindness and his own good fortune, Allucius pledges allegiance to Rome and returns with a strong contingent of cavalry to support Scipio. Scipio's effective management includes training exercises for his troops and ensuring all naval and military activities strengthen morale and readiness. By engaging in alternating days of rigorous training and rest, Scipio maintains high physical fitness and battle readiness among his troops. Scipio's attention to detail in overseeing every aspect of military preparations at New Carthage enhances the efficiency and morale of his forces. After fortifying New Carthage and establishing a garrison, Scipio leaves for Tarraco, interacting with various delegations along the way. The Carthaginians, trying to downplay the loss of New Carthage, await the arrival of three Roman armies, knowing the true impact of their defeat. In Italy, the Roman consul Marcellus secures victories in Marmoreae and Meles, capturing a vast amount of supplies and defeating Carthaginian forces. Marcellus's successes are overshadowed by the defeat of proconsul Gnaeus Fulvius near Herdonea, who is outmaneuvered and killed by Hannibal. Hannibal, capitalizing on his victory, destroys Herdonea and relocates its population, further weakening Roman influence in the region. Despite the setback, Marcellus remains undeterred, signaling his intent to continue engaging Hannibal and reassuring the Senate of his determination. Continuous engagements between Marcellus and Hannibal in southern Italy result in tactical Roman successes and a persistent pursuit of the Carthaginian army. 80 / 129 Fulvius Flaccus was dealing with a new conspiracy in Capua while selling properties and leasing confiscated land. A plot by Capuans to burn the Roman military quarters was thwarted, leading to the execution of the conspirators and rewards for the informants. The Senate granted permission for the rebuilding of Acerrae and the relocation of the citizens of Nuceria to Atella. Grain for Tarentum was procured from Etruria and additional troops were sent there for garrison duty. The Senate faced a dilemma with the consular elections due to Marcellus's pursuit of Hannibal and decided to recall Valerius Laevinus from Sicily. King Syphax of Numidia reported successes against Carthaginians and sought Rome's friendship, which led to an exchange of envoys and gifts between Rome, Syphax, and other African rulers. Various prodigies and omens reported from nearby towns were addressed with sacrifices and prayers. The consul Laevinus reported his successful governance in Sicily before returning due to the disturbing news about Carthaginian military preparations in Africa. A conflict over the legality of appointing a dictator outside of Italy was resolved by a public vote, leading to Quintus Fulvius's appointment. Disagreements on the re-election of officials were settled by the Senate, allowing experienced military leaders to be re-elected in times of war. 81 / 129 Quintus Fabius Maximus and Quintus Fulvius Flaccus were elected as consuls, and several praetors were appointed for the coming year. A Carthaginian fleet led by Hamilcar raided Sardinia, responding to Roman forces by evading and raiding another part of the island before returning to Africa. A series of Roman priests passed away, with their roles being promptly filled by new appointees, except for the positions of rex sacrorum and chief curio. The censors did not perform their duties of revising the senatorial list due to the death of one and the consequent resignation of the other. The Roman and Plebeian Games were celebrated, the latter with notable splendor for the time, and bronze statues were added to the temple of Ceres. Laelius reported to Rome about military successes in Spain, leading to a day of public thanksgiving for Scipio's achievements. The distribution of military commands and resources for the upcoming year was detailed, with a focus on Italy and surrounding regions. An old dispute was resolved when Gaius Mamilius Atellus became the first plebeian chief curio after a decision by the people. Gaius Valerius Flaccus was reluctantly made flamen of Jupiter, which led to a surprising improvement in his character and reinvigorated an old privilege of attending the Senate. Troop movements and strategies, particularly concerning Sicily and reinforcements for Tarentum, were carefully planned to maintain defense and support throughout the territories. A potential uprising among the Latin Confederacy and allied communities was hinted at due to the continuous levies and the hardship faced by their soldiers and economies. 82 / 129 The Latin colonies of Rome, under the threat of desolation from ongoing war demands, considered a refusal to supply the Romans with men and money. Twelve colonies openly declared their inability to support the Roman consuls, causing shock and fear of rebellion in Rome. The consuls attempted to persuade the colonies by reminding them of their Roman origins and duties, but the envoys remained resolute in their inability to provide support. A sense of doom spread in the Senate as there were concerns that other colonies and allies might also betray Rome to Hannibal. The consuls reassured the Senate, suggesting a firm approach with the colonies could ensure loyalty and compliance. Eighteen colonies reaffirmed their support for Rome, offering troops and resources, which was gratefully acknowledged by the Senate and the people. Commendation was given to the loyal colonies, while the twelve that refused support were punished with silence, an act seen as maintaining Roman dignity. To finance the war, a reserve of gold was used, with allocations given to consuls and other commanders for military expenses. Prodigious events were reported and atoned for with sacrifices and decrees for prayers, reflecting the Roman connection between omens and state affairs. A controversial censorial election led to a debate over leadership, with Quintus Fabius Maximus being appointed despite traditions. The censors took strict actions against those who shirked military duties, and contracted for the rebuilding of structures around the forum after a fire. Upon completing necessary preparations, the consuls proceeded to their respective war zones, coordinating efforts to tackle Hannibal and his forces. Marcellus, encouraged by Fabius, decided to engage Hannibal directly, while Fabius himself focused on recapturing Tarentum from the enemy. Marcellus followed Hannibal, who was trying to win over Canusium, forcing Hannibal into military engagements he aimed to avoid. 83 / 129 Scipio's troops were initially vulnerable while fortifying their camp, but managed to repel Mago and Masinissa's cavalry with a surprise counterattack. Hasdrubal tested Roman strengths through minor clashes, but when the major battles ensued, neither side initially engaged the other directly. Scipio repositioned his Roman troops unexpectedly, confusing the Carthaginian forces and gaining a tactical advantage. The Carthaginian center, pressured and unable to assist their flanks, succumbed to the Romans' concerted assault. Hasdrubal's forces suffered from fatigue and disarray, exacerbated by a sudden rainstorm, leading to their retreat and fortification efforts. Dissent and desertion within Carthaginian ranks escalated, with significant defections weakening their position. Scipio pursued the retreating Carthaginians but missed an opportunity to intercept them due to a misguided shortcut. Hasdrubal's remaining forces were decimated by Roman attacks, with the general himself escaping to Gades, leaving his men behind. Scipio's methodical approach post-victory included rewarding loyal communities, and Masinissa's defection to Rome highlighted the strategic shifts among local powers. The narrative concludes with the complete expulsion of the Carthaginians from Spain by Publius Scipio. 98 / 129 Scipio had taken command in Spain and successfully ousted Carthaginian control, signaling the end of the Spanish war. Despite his success, Scipio viewed the conquest as just the beginning and aimed to conquer Africa and Carthage. Scipio sought alliances with local rulers, like Syphax, King of the Masaesulii, to strengthen his position against Carthage. Syphax, who had prior treaties with Carthage, was swayed by Roman victories and gifts, agreeing to Roman friendship. Scipio undertook a risky visit to Syphax in Africa, coinciding with the arrival of the Carthaginian general Hasdrubal. Both Roman and Carthaginian generals were hosted by Syphax, who tried to mediate peace unsuccessfully. Scipio's charisma impressed both Syphax and his Carthaginian enemy, Hasdrubal, who feared Scipio's influence. A treaty between Syphax and Scipio was secured, marking a significant diplomatic victory for Rome. With the war in Spain concluded, attention turned to punishing disloyal communities like Iliturgi and Castulo for past betrayals. Scipio's army faced fierce resistance at Iliturgi, but the town's guilt and fear motivated a desperate defense. The siege of Iliturgi showcased the Romans' determination and capability to overcome strong resistance through concerted assaults. The aftermath of the siege was brutal, with Roman soldiers driven by rage, leading to the slaughter of combatants and non-combatants alike. 99 / 129 Decimus Vibellius led the men who did not intend to make permanent war upon Rome or her allies. Scipio rebuked the troops for sharing plans with enemies and contemplating permanent settlement in a foreign land like Rhegium's Campanians or Sicily's Mamertines. He highlighted his own military achievements and questioned the mutineers' rationale, suggesting Rome's survival isn't dependent on any single leader. Scipio compared the potential mutiny to historical betrayals but emphasized the unjustness of the troops' actions given Rome's history and the lack of just cause. He declared punishment for the ringleaders of the mutiny, stating that the severity should serve as a warning to others. The text narrates the swift and fearful execution of the leaders and the subsequent oath of allegiance by the soldiers. Marcius defeats Hanno, who was attempting to raise troops, resulting in significant losses for Hanno's forces. Laelius, with superior naval tactics, overcomes Adherbal's fleet near the Straits and the Roman fleet emerges victorious. Information on the failure of a plot to betray Gades and the strategic decision by Roman commanders to regroup with the main forces is detailed. Mago sends exaggerated reports of Roman mutiny and defection to Carthage, hoping for reinforcements to reclaim Spanish territories. Mandonius and Indibilis, upon learning the severity of the Roman punishment, resolve to renew their rebellion against Rome. Scipio restores morale and loyalty among his troops through fair treatment and encouraging interaction, contrasting his feelings on disciplining his own men with those of punishing treacherous chieftains. 102 / 129 Scipio appeals to his troops by invoking shared glory and downplaying the current challenge as minor compared to past achievements. Scipio's strategy involved luring enemy tribesmen using cattle, then surprising them with hidden cavalry. Despite their initial defeat, the Spanish forces reformed, displaying resilience but suffered a tactical disadvantage due to the narrow battlefield. Scipio used an innovative tactic by separating his cavalry and infantry to outmaneuver the Spanish forces, leading to a complete Spanish defeat in the valley. Following the battle, Scipio showed clemency to the defeated Spanish leader Indibilis, offering them freedom instead of demanding hostages or disarmament. The Roman and allied forces suffered significant casualties, but Scipio’s leniency aimed to win the loyalty of the conquered. Scipio's encounter with Masinissa is marked by mutual respect and the beginnings of a strategic alliance against Carthage. Masinissa expresses a strong desire to aid Rome, foreseeing his assistance as crucial if Scipio commands in Africa. The Roman general Scipio's appearance and demeanor make a strong impression on Masinissa, furthering their diplomatic relationship. The meeting concludes with a pledge of support from Masinissa, who conducts raids to maintain appearances before returning to Gades. 103 / 129 Scipio's military strategy is under scrutiny for wanting to move the fight to Africa, leaving Hannibal in Italy. Fabius Maximus cautions against Scipio's plan, suggesting it is more beneficial for Rome to keep its potent defender within Italy. Fabius contrasts his cautious approach with Scipio’s aggressive strategy, emphasizing the risks of Scipio’s potential move to Africa. Fabius reminds the Senate of past military decisions and their outcomes, urging them to consider the implications of Scipio's proposed strategy. Scipio responds by citing his past successes and qualifications to justify his plan of taking the fight to the Carthaginians in Africa. Scipio argues that his strategy to attack in Africa would draw Hannibal away from Italy and could result in a more decisive victory. The debate involves references to historical precedents and strategic considerations, such as the importance of initiative and the impact of fighting on home versus foreign soil. Scipio aims to reassure the Senate of the soundness of his plan by highlighting the unstable alliance network of the Carthaginians and the potential for rebellion against them. The discourse includes a discussion on the morale and psychological effects of warfare, with Scipio suggesting that taking the offensive would boost Roman morale and prestige. Scipio counters Fabius's safety concerns by emphasizing the need for boldness and the opportunity to end the war more quickly by threatening Carthage directly. 106 / 129 Scipio's speech in the Senate was not well-received amid rumors he would bypass the Senate to get the African province. Quintus Fulvius challenged Scipio to commit to abiding by the Senate's decision regarding his assignment, hinting that Scipio had a bill ready to present to the people otherwise. An argument ensued regarding the legalities of senatorial decree and the tribunes' protection, leading to Scipio requesting a day to consult his colleague. The Senate eventually assigned the provinces, allowing one consul to command in Sicily with potential action in Africa, and the other to face Hannibal in Bruttium. Scipio was permitted to take volunteers and receive aid for his fleet from allies without additional financial burden to the state. Various Italian communities pledged different forms of support to Scipio's cause, from materials for shipbuilding to grain and military supplies. Scipio efficiently managed the construction of his fleet, with ships being launched just 45 days after timber was felled. Other Roman leaders were engaged in various military and administrative tasks, including the sale of Campanian land and relocation of Campanian citizens. Mago, son of Hamilcar, captured Genoa and threatened to create a new front against Rome, leading to Roman strategic reassignments and a response to the perceived threat. An epidemic struck both Roman and Carthaginian forces, and Hannibal dedicated an altar at Juno Lacinia's temple. In Sicily, Scipio cleverly replaced reluctant Sicilian cavalry with eager Roman volunteers, improving the quality of his forces at no extra cost to the state. 107 / 129 Scipio selects experienced soldiers for his legions, especially those who served under Marcellus, due to their skills in siege warfare. Preparing for his campaign against Carthage, Scipio requisitions grain, repairs ships, and raids the African coast. Discontent and property disputes in Syracuse are settled by Scipio, improving relations and aiding his war efforts. In Spain, Indibilis revolts, admiring Scipio but viewing other Roman generals as inferior, seizing the chance to liberate Spain from Roman control. Roman generals Lentulus and Acidinus respond to the Spanish rebellion, engaging in battle, leading to heavy Spanish losses and the death of Indibilis. After their defeat, the Spanish rebels are forced to capitulate, doubling their tribute and providing supplies to the Romans, restoring peace. Carthage is thrown into panic by Laelius's raid, believing Scipio's forces had arrived, prompting emergency defense measures. Despite initial fear, Carthage learns that the actual threat is smaller than anticipated, and they begin reinforcing alliances and military strength. Carthage sends envoys and military support to allies and to their forces in Italy, hoping to strengthen their position against Rome. Masinissa meets with Laelius to discuss the rich spoils from Laelius's raid, indicating a potential alliance with Rome. 108 / 129 Locrian delegates received permission to address the Roman Senate to complain about the abuses they suffered under the Roman commander Pleminius and his soldiers. The Locrian senior delegate emphasized that their suffering at the hands of Romans was far worse than under Carthaginian control, questioning the nature of Roman rule. Pleminius and his men were accused of widespread atrocities in Locri, including sacrilege, violence, and disrespect of local customs and religion. The Locrians highlighted a specific grievance involving the desecration of a temple of Proserpine, illustrating it with historical references to divine retribution for similar acts. Pleminius’s conduct led to internal conflict among Roman troops, with fights breaking out between factions, highlighting the breakdown of discipline. The Locrian delegates had attempted to raise their complaints with the Roman general Scipio but were sidelined due to his campaign preparations. After the Locrian delegation spoke, the Senate criticized both Pleminius and Scipio, with suggestions for severe punishments and recalls. A resolution was proposed for the arrest and punishment of Pleminius and the recalling of Scipio from his command for dereliction of duty. The Senate was advised to publicly disavow the actions of Pleminius, declare the Locrians as allies, and restore stolen property, particularly the funds from Proserpine's treasury.

MISSING A LITTLE BIT